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 <!--
-   Copyright 2010 The Android Open Source Project 
+   Copyright 2010 The Android Open Source Project
 
-   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); 
+   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
    you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
    You may obtain a copy of the License at
 
@@ -38,3 +38,10 @@
 
 [&raquo; Encryption Information](/tech/encryption/index.html)
 
+##Security Technical Information ##
+Android provides a robust multi-layered security architecture that provides the
+flexibility required for an open platform, while providing protection for all
+users of the platform. This document focuses on the security features of the
+core Android platform.
+
+[&raquo; Android Security Overview](/tech/security/index.html)
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+﻿[TOC]
+#Android Security Overview
+
+##Introduction
+
+Android is a modern mobile platform that was designed to be truly open. Android
+applications make use of advanced hardware and software, as well as local and
+served data, exposed through the platform to bring innovation and value to
+consumers. To protect that value, the platform must offer an application
+environment that ensures the security of users, data, applications, the device,
+and the network.
+
+Securing an open platform requires a robust security architecture and rigorous
+security programs.  Android was designed with multi-layered security that
+provides the flexibility required for an open platform, while providing
+protection for all users of the platform.
+
+Android was designed with developers in mind. Security controls were designed
+to reduce the burden on developers. Security-savvy developers can easily work
+with and rely on flexible security controls.  Developers less familiar with
+security will be protected by safe defaults.
+
+Android was designed with device users in mind. Users are provided visibility
+into how applications work, and control over those applications.  This design
+includes the expectation that attackers would attempt to perform common
+attacks, such as social engineering attacks to convince device users to install
+malware, and attacks on third-party applications on Android. Android was
+designed to both reduce the probability of these attacks and greatly limit the
+impact of the attack in the event it was successful.
+
+This document outlines the goals of the Android security program, describes the
+fundamentals of the Android security architecture, and answers the most
+pertinent questions for system architects and security analysts.  This document
+focuses on the security features of Android's core platform and does not
+discuss security issues that are unique to specific applications, such as those
+related to the browser or SMS application. Recommended best practices for
+building Android devices, deploying Android devices, or developing applications
+for Android are not the goal of this document and are provided elsewhere.
+
+# Background
+
+Android provides an open source platform and application environment for mobile
+devices.
+
+The main Android platform building blocks are:
+
++ **Device Hardware**: Android runs on a wide range of hardware configurations
+including smart phones, tablets, and set-top-boxes.  Android is
+processor-agnostic, but it does take advantage of some hardware-specific
+security capabilities such as ARM v6 eXecute-Never.
+
++ **Android Operating System**: The core operating system is built on top of
+the Linux kernel. All device resources, like camera functions, GPS data,
+Bluetooth functions, telephony functions, network connections, etc. are
+accessed through the operating system.
+
++ **Android Application Runtime**: Android applications are most often written
+in the Java programming language and run in the Dalvik virtual machine.
+However, many applications, including core Android services and applications
+are native applications or include native libraries. Both Dalvik and native
+applications run within the same security environment, contained within the
+Application Sandbox. Applications get a dedicated part of the filesystem in
+which they can write private data, including databases and raw files.
+
+Android applications extend the core Android operating system.  There are two
+primary sources for applications:
+
++ **Pre-Installed Applications**: Android includes a set of pre-installed
+applications including phone, email, calendar, web browser, and contacts. These
+function both as user applications and to provide key device capabilities that
+can be accessed by other applications.  Pre-installed applications may be part
+of the open source Android platform, or they may be developed by an OEM for a
+specific device.
+
++ **User-Installed Applications**: Android provides an open development
+environment supporting any third-party application. The Android Market offers
+users hundreds of thousands of applications.
+
+Google provides a set of cloud-based services that are available to any
+compatible Android device.  The primary services are:
+
++ **Android Market**: The Android Market is a collection of services that
+allow users to discover, install, and purchase applications from their Android
+device or the web.  The Market makes it easy for developers to reach Android
+users and potential customers.   The Market also provides community review,
+application [license
+verification](http://developer.android.com/guide/publishing/licensing.html),
+and other security services.
+
++ **Android Updates**: The Android update service delivers new capabilities and
+security updates to Android devices, including updates through the web or over
+the air (OTA).
+
++ **Application Services**: Frameworks that allow Android applications to use
+cloud capabilities such as ([backing
+up](http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/data/backup.html)) application
+data and settings and cloud-to-device messaging
+([C2DM](http://code.google.com/android/c2dm/index.html))
+for push messaging.
+
+These services are not part of the Android Open Source Project and are out
+of scope for this document.  But they are relevant to the security of most
+Android devices, so a related security document titled “Google Services for
+Android: Security Overview” is available.
+
+##Android Security Program Overview
+
+Early on in development, the core Android development team recognized that a
+robust security model was required to enable a vigorous ecosystem of
+applications and devices built on and around the Android platform and supported
+by cloud services. As a result, through its entire development lifecycle,
+Android has been subjected to a professional security program. The Android team
+has had the opportunity to observe how other mobile, desktop, and server platforms
+prevented and reacted to security issues and built a security
+program to address weak points observed in other offerings.
+
+The key components of the Android Security Program include:
+
++ **Design Review**: The Android security process begins early in the
+development lifecycle with the creation of a rich and configurable security
+model and design. Each major feature of the platform is reviewed by engineering
+and security resources, with appropriate security controls integrated into the
+architecture of the system.
++ **Penetration Testing and Code Review**: During the development of the
+platform, Android-created and open-source components are subject to vigorous
+security reviews. These reviews are performed by the Android Security Team,
+Google’s Information Security Engineering team, and independent security
+consultants. The goal of these reviews is to identify weaknesses and possible
+vulnerabilities well before the platform is open-sourced, and to simulate the
+types of analysis that will be performed by external security experts upon
+release.
++ **Open Source and Community Review**: The Android Open Source Project enables
+broad security review by any interested party. Android also uses open source
+technologies that have undergone significant external security review,
+such as the Linux kernel.  The Android Market provides a forum for users and companies
+to provide information about specific applications directly to users.
++ **Incident Response**: Even with all of these precautions, security issues
+may occur after shipping, which is why the Android project has created a
+comprehensive security response process. A full-time Android security team
+constantly monitors Android-specific and the general security community for
+discussion of potential vulnerabilities. Upon the discovery of legitimate
+issues, the Android team has a response process that enables the rapid
+mitigation of vulnerabilities to ensure that potential risk to all Android
+users is minimized.  These cloud-supported responses can include updating the
+Android platform (over-the-air updates), removing applications from the Android
+Market, and removing applications from devices in the field.
+
+##Android Platform Security Architecture
+
+Android seeks to be the most secure and usable operating system for mobile
+platforms by re-purposing traditional operating system security controls to:
+
++ Protect user data
++ Protect system resources (including the network)
++ Provide application isolation
+
+To achieve these objectives, Android provides these key security features:
+
++ Robust security at the OS level through the Linux kernel
++ Mandatory application sandbox for all applications
++ Secure interprocess communication
++ Application signing
++ Application-defined and user-granted permissions
+
+The sections below describe these and other security features of the Android
+platform. *Figure 1* summarizes the security components and considerations of
+the various levels of the Android software stack. Each component assumes that
+the components below are properly secured. With the exception of a small amount
+of Android OS code running as root, all code above the Linux Kernel is
+restricted by the Application Sandbox.
+
+![Figure 1: Android software stack](images/image00.png)
+
+*Figure 1: Android software stack.*
+
+#System and Kernel Level Security
+
+At the operating system level, the Android platform provides the security of
+the Linux kernel, as well as a secure inter-process communication (IPC)
+facility to enable secure communication between applications running in
+different processes. These security features at the OS level ensure that even
+native code is constrained by the Application Sandbox.  Whether that code is
+the result of included application behavior or a exploitation of an application
+vulnerability, the system would prevent the rogue application from harming
+other applications, the Android system, or the device itself.
+
+##Linux Security
+
+The foundation of the Android platform is the Linux kernel. The Linux kernel
+itself has been in widespread use for years, and is used in millions of
+security-sensitive environments. Through its history of constantly being
+researched, attacked, and fixed by thousands of developers, Linux has become a
+stable and secure kernel trusted by many corporations and security
+professionals.
+
+As the base for a mobile computing environment, the Linux kernel provides
+Android with several key security features, including:
+
++ A user-based permissions model
++ Process isolation
++ Extensible mechanism for secure IPC
++ The ability to remove unnecessary and potentially insecure parts of the kernel
+
+As a multiuser operating system, a fundamental security objective of the Linux
+kernel is to isolate user resources from one another.  The Linux security
+philosophy is to protect user resources from one another. Thus, Linux:
+
++ Pevents user A from reading user B's files
++ Ensures that user A does not exhaust user B's memory
++ Ensures that user A does not exhaust user B's CPU resources
++ Ensures that user A does not exhaust user B's devices (e.g. telephony, GPS,
+bluetooth)
+
+##The Application Sandbox
+
+The Android platform takes advantage of the Linux user-based protection as a
+means of identifying and isolating application resources.  The Android system
+assigns a unique user ID (UID) to each Android application and runs it as that user
+in a separate process.  This approach is different from other operating systems
+(including the traditional Linux configuration), where multiple applications
+run with the same user permissions.
+
+This sets up a kernel-level Application Sandbox. The kernel enforces security
+between applications and the system at the process level through standard Linux
+facilities, such as user and group IDs that are assigned to applications.  By
+default, applications cannot interact with each other and applications have
+limited access to the operating system. If application A tries to do something
+malicious like read application B's data or dial the phone without permission
+(which is a separate application), then the operating system protects against
+this because application A does not have the appropriate user privileges. The
+sandbox is simple, auditable, and based on decades-old UNIX-style user
+separation of processes and file permissions.
+
+Since the Application Sandbox is in the kernel, this security model extends to
+native code and to operating system applications. All of the software above the
+kernel in *Figure 1*, including operating system libraries, application
+framework, application runtime, and all applications run within the Application
+Sandbox. On some platforms, developers are constrained to a specific
+development framework, set of APIs, or language in order to enforce security.
+On Android, there are no restrictions on how an application can be written that
+are required to enforce security; in this respect, native code is just as
+secure as interpreted code.
+
+In some operating systems, memory corruption errors generally lead to
+completely compromising the security of the device. This is not the case in
+Android due to all applications and their resources being sandboxed at the OS
+level. A memory corruption error will only allow arbitrary code execution in
+the context of that particular application, with the permissions established by
+the operating system.
+
+Like all security features, the Application Sandbox is not unbreakable.
+However, to break out of the Application Sandbox in a properly configured
+device, one must compromise the security of the the Linux kernel.
+
+##System Partition and Safe Mode
+
+The system partition contains Android's kernel as well as the operating system
+libraries, application runtime, application framework, and applications.  This
+partition is set to read-only. When a user boots the device into Safe Mode,
+only core Android applications are available. This ensures that the user can
+boot their phone into an environment that is free of third-party software.
+
+##Filesystem Permissions
+
+In a UNIX-style environment, filesystem permissions ensure that one user cannot
+alter or read another user's files. In the case of Android, each application
+runs as its own user. Unless the developer explicitly exposes files to other
+applications, files created by one application cannot be read or altered by
+another application.
+
+##Filesystem Encryption
+
+Android 3.0 and later provides full filesystem encryption, so all user data can
+be encrypted in the kernel using the dmcrypt implementation of AES128 with CBC
+and ESSIV:SHA256.   The encryption key is protected by AES128 using a key
+derived from the user password, preventing unauthorized access to stored data
+without the user device password.   To provide resistance against systematic
+password guessing attacks (e.g. “rainbow tables” or brute force), the
+password is combined with a random salt and hashed repeatedly with SHA1 using
+the standard PBKDF2 algorithm prior to being used to decrypt the filesystem
+key. To provide resistance against dictionary password guessing attacks,
+Android provides password complexity rules that can be set by the device
+administrator and enforced by the operating system. Filesystem encryption
+requires the use of a user password, pattern-based screen lock is not supported.
+
+More details on implementation of filesystem encryption are available at
+[http://source.android.com/tech/encryption/android_crypto_implementation.html](/
+tech/encryption/android_crypto_implementation.html)
+
+##Password Protection
+
+Android can be configured to verify a user-supplied password prior to providing
+access to a device. In addition to preventing unauthorized use of the device,
+this password protects the cryptographic key for full filesystem encryption.
+
+Use of a password and/or password complexity rules can be required by a device
+administrator.
+
+##Device Administration
+
+Android 2.2 and later provide the Android Device Administration API, which
+provides device administration features at the system level. For example, the
+built-in Android Email application uses the APIs to improve Exchange support.
+Through the Email application, Exchange administrators can enforce password
+policies — including alphanumeric passwords or numeric PINs — across
+devices. Administrators can also remotely wipe (that is, restore factory
+defaults on) lost or stolen handsets.
+
+In addition to use in applications included with the Android system, these APIs
+are available to third-party providers of Device Management solutions. Details
+on the API are provided here:
+[http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/admin/device-admin.html](http://devel
+oper.android.com/guide/topics/admin/device-admin.html).
+
+
+##Memory Management Security Enhancements
+
+Android includes many features that make common security issues harder to
+exploit. The Android SDK, compilers, and OS use tools to make common memory
+corruption issues significantly harder to exploit, including:
+
++ Hardware-based No eXecute (NX) to prevent code execution on the stack and heap
++ ProPolice to prevent stack buffer overruns
++ safe_iop to reduce integer overflows
++ Extensions to OpenBSD dlmalloc to prevent double free() vulnerabilities and
+to prevent chunk consolidation attacks.  Chunk consolidation attacks are a
+common way to exploit heap corruption.
++ OpenBSD calloc to prevent integer overflows during memory allocation
++ Linux mmap_min_addr() to mitigate null pointer dereference privilege
+escalation
+
+##Rooting of Devices
+
+By default, on Android only the kernel and a small subset of the core
+applications run with root permissions. Android does not prevent a user or
+application with root permissions from modifying the operating system, kernel,
+and any other application.  In general, root has full access to all
+applications and all application data. Users that change the permissions on an
+Android device to grant root access to applications increase the security
+exposure to malicious applications and potential application flaws.
+
+The ability to modify an Android device they own is important to developers
+working with the Android platform. On many Android devices users have the
+ability to unlock the bootloader in order to allow installation of an alternate
+operating system. These alternate operating systems may allow an owner to gain
+root access for purposes of debugging applications and system components or to
+access features not presented to applications by Android APIs.
+
+On some devices, a person with physical control of a device and a USB cable is
+able to install a new operating system that provides root privileges to the
+user. To protect any existing user data from compromise the bootloader unlock
+mechanism requires that the bootloader erase any existing user data as part of
+the unlock step. Root access gained via exploiting a kernel bug or security
+hole can bypass this protection.
+
+Encrypting data with a key stored on-device does not protect the application
+data from root users. Applications can add a layer of data protection using
+encryption with a key stored off-device, such as on a server or a user
+password.  This approach can provide temporary protection while the key is not
+present, but at some point the key must be provided to the application and it
+then becomes accessible to root users.
+
+A more robust approach to protecting data from root users is through the use of
+hardware solutions. OEMs may choose to implement hardware solutions that limit
+access to specific types of content such as DRM for video playback, or the
+NFC-related trusted storage for Google wallet.
+
+In the case of a lost or stolen device, full filesystem encryption on Android
+devices uses the device password to protect the encryption key, so modifying
+the bootloader or operating system is not sufficient to access user data
+without the user’s device password.
+
+#Android Application Security
+
+##Elements of Applications
+
+Android provides an open source platform and application environment for mobile
+devices. The core operating system is based on the Linux kernel. Android
+applications are most often written in the Java programming language and run in
+the Dalvik virtual machine. However, applications can also be written in native
+code. Applications are installed from a single file with the .apk file
+extension.
+
+The main Android application building blocks are:
+
++ **AndroidManifest.xml**: The
+[AndroidManifest.xml](http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/manifest/manifes
+t-intro.html) file is the control file that tells the system what to do with
+all the top-level components (specifically activities, services, broadcast
+receivers, and content providers described below) in an application. This also
+specifies which permissions are required.
+
++ **Activities**: An
+[Activity](http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/fundamentals/activities.htm
+l) is, generally, the code for a single, user-focused task.  It usually
+includes displaying a UI to the user, but it does not have to -- some
+Activities never display UIs.  Typically, one of the application's Activities
+is the entry point to an application.
+
++ **Services**: A
+[Service](http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/fundamentals/services.html)
+is a body of code that runs in the background. It can run in its own process,
+or in the context of another application's process. Other components "bind" to
+a Service and invoke methods on it via remote procedure calls. An example of a
+Service is a media player: even when the user quits the media-selection UI, the
+user probably still intends for music to keep playing. A Service keeps the
+music going even when the UI has completed.
+
++ **Broadcast Receiver**: A
+[BroadcastReceiver](http://developer.android.com/reference/android/content/Broad
+castReceiver.html) is an object that is instantiated when an IPC mechanism
+known as an
+[Intent](http://code.google.com/android/reference/android/content/Intent.html)
+is issued by the operating system or another application.  An application may
+register a receiver for the low battery message, for example, and change its
+behavior based on that information.
+
+
+##The Android Permission Model: Accessing Protected APIs
+
+By default, an Android application can only access a limited range of system
+resources. The system manages Android application access to resources that, if
+used incorrectly or maliciously, could adversely impact the user experience,
+the network, or data on the device.
+
+These restrictions are implemented in a variety of different forms.  Some
+capabilities are restricted by an intentional lack of APIs to the sensitive
+functionality (e.g. there is no Android API for directly manipulating the SIM
+card).  In some instances, separation of roles provides a security measure, as
+with the per-application isolation of storage. In other instances, the
+sensitive APIs are intended for use by trusted applications and protected
+through a security mechanism known as Permissions.
+
+These protected APIs include:
+
++ Camera functions
++ Location data (GPS)
++ Bluetooth functions
++ Telephony functions
++ SMS/MMS functions
++ Network/data connections
+
+These resources are only accessible through the operating system.  To make use
+of the protected APIs on the device, an application must define the
+capabilities it needs in its manifest.  When preparing to install an
+application, the system displays a dialog to the user that indicates the
+permissions requested and asks whether to continue the installation.  If the
+user continues with the installation, the system accepts that the user has
+granted all of the requested permissions. The user can not grant or deny
+individual permissions -- the user must grant or deny all of the requested
+permissions as a block.
+
+Once granted, the permissions are applied to the application as long as it is
+installed.  To avoid user confusion, the system does not notify the user again
+of the permissions granted to the application, and applications that are
+included in the core operating system or bundled by an OEM do not request
+permissions from the user. Permissions are removed if an application is
+uninstalled, so a subsequent re-installation will again result in display of
+permissions.
+
+Within the device settings, users are able to view permissions for applications
+they have previously installed. Users can also turn off some functionality
+globally when they choose, such as disabling GPS, radio, or wi-fi.
+
+In the event that an application attempts to use a protected feature which has
+not been declared in the application's manifest, the permission failure will
+typically result in a security exception being thrown back to the application.
+Protected API permission checks are enforced at the lowest possible level to
+prevent circumvention. An example of the user messaging when an application is
+installed while requesting access to protected APIs is shown in *Figure 2*.
+
+The system default permissions are described at
+[http://code.google.com/android/reference/android/Manifest.permission.html](http
+://code.google.com/android/reference/android/Manifest.permission.html).
+Applications may declare their own permissions for other applications to use.
+Such permissions are not listed in the above location.
+
+When defining a permission a protectionLevel attribute tells the system how the
+user is to be informed of applications requiring the permission, or who is
+allowed to hold a permission. Details on creating and using application
+specific permissions are described at
+[http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/security/security.html](http://develo
+per.android.com/guide/topics/security/security.html).
+
+There are some device capabilities, such as the ability to send SMS broadcast
+intents, that are not available to third-party applications, but that may be
+used by applications pre-installed by the OEM. These permissions use the
+signatureOrSystem permission.
+
+##How Users Understand Third-Party Applications
+
+Android strives to make it clear to users when they are interacting with
+third-party applications and inform the user of the capabilities those
+applications have.  Prior to installation of any application, the user is shown
+a clear message about the different permissions the application is requesting.
+After install, the user is not prompted again to confirm any permissions.
+
+There are many reasons to show permissions immediately prior to installation
+time. This is when user is actively reviewing information about the
+application, developer, and functionality to determine whether it matches their
+needs and expectations.  It is also important that they have not yet
+established a mental or financial commitment to the app, and can easily compare
+the application to other alternative applications.
+
+Some other platforms use a different approach to user notification, requesting
+permission at the start of each session or while applications are in use. The
+vision of Android is to have users switching seamlessly between applications at
+will. Providing confirmations each time would slow down the user and prevent
+Android from delivering a great user experience. Having the user review
+permissions at install time gives the user the option to not install the
+application if they feel uncomfortable.
+
+Also, many user interface studies have shown that over-prompting the user
+causes the user to start saying "OK" to any dialog that is shown. One of
+Android's security goals is to effectively convey important security
+information to the user, which cannot be done using dialogs that the user will
+be trained to ignore. By presenting the important information once, and only
+when it is important, the user is more likely to think about what they are
+agreeing to.
+
+Some platforms choose not to show any information at all about application
+functionality. That approach prevents users from easily understanding and
+discussing application capabilities. While it is not possible for all users to
+always make fully informed decisions, the Android permissions model makes
+information about applications easily accessible to a wide range of users.  For
+example, unexpected permissions requests can prompt more sophisticated users to
+ask critical questions about application functionality and share their concerns
+in places such as the [Android Market](https://market.android.com) where they
+are visible to all users.
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><strong>Permissions at Application Install -- Google Maps</strong></td>
+<td><strong>Permissions of an Installed Application -- gMail</strong></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<img alt="Permissions at Application Install -- Google Maps" width=250
+src="images/image_install.png"/>
+</td>
+<td>
+<img alt="Permissions of an Installed Application -- gMail" width=250
+src="images/image_gmail_installed.png"/>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+*Figure 2: Display of permissions for applications*
+
+##Interprocess Communication
+
+Processes can communicate using any of the traditional UNIX-type mechanisms.
+Examples include the filesystem, local sockets, or signals. However, the Linux
+permissions still apply.
+
+Android also provides new IPC mechanisms:
+
++ **Binder**: A lightweight capability-based remote procedure call mechanism
+designed for high performance when performing in-process and cross-process
+calls. Binder is implemented using a custom Linux driver. See
+[http://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Binder.html](http://developer
+.android.com/reference/android/os/Binder.html).
+
++ **Services**: Services (discussed above) can provide interfaces directly
+accessible using binder.
+
++ **Intents**: An Intent is a simple message object that represents an
+"intention" to do something. For example, if your application wants to display
+a web page, it expresses its "Intent" to view the URL by creating an Intent
+instance and handing it off to the system. The system locates some other piece
+of code (in this case, the Browser) that knows how to handle that Intent, and
+runs it. Intents can also be used to broadcast interesting events (such as a
+notification) system-wide. See
+[http://code.google.com/android/reference/android/content/Intent.html](http://co
+de.google.com/android/reference/android/content/Intent.html).
+
++ **ContentProviders**: A ContentProvider is a data storehouse that provides
+access to data on the device; the classic example is the ContentProvider that
+is used to access the user's list of contacts. An application can access data
+that other applications have exposed via a ContentProvider, and an application
+can also define its own ContentProviders to expose data of its own. See
+[http://code.google.com/android/reference/android/content/ContentProvider.html](
+http://code.google.com/android/reference/android/content/ContentProvider.html).
+
+While it is possible to implement IPC using other mechanisms such as network
+sockets or world-writable files, these are the recommended Android IPC
+frameworks. Android developers will be encouraged to use best practices around
+securing users' data and avoiding the introduction of security vulnerabilities.
+
+##Cost-Sensitive APIs
+
+A cost sensitive API is any function that might generate a cost for the user or
+the network. The Android platform has placed cost sensitive APIs in the list of
+protected APIs controlled by the OS. The user will have to grant explicit
+permission to third-party applications requesting use of cost sensitive APIs.
+These APIs include:
+
++ Telephony
++ SMS/MMS
++ Network/Data
++ In-App Billing
++ NFC Access
+
+##SIM Card Access
+
+Low level access to the SIM card is not available to third-party apps. The OS
+handles all communications with the SIM card including access to personal
+information (contacts) on the SIM card memory. Applications also cannot access
+AT commands, as these are managed exclusively by the Radio Interface Layer
+(RIL). The RIL provides no high level APIs for these commands.
+
+##Personal Information
+
+Android has placed APIs that provide access to user data into the set of
+protected APIs.  With normal usage, Android devices will also accumulate user
+data within third-party applications installed by users.   Applications that
+choose to share this information can use Android OS permission checks to
+protect the data from third-party applications.
+
+![Figure 3: Access to sensitive user data is only available through protected
+APIs](images/image03.png)
+
+*Figure 3: Access to sensitive user data is only available through protected
+APIs*
+
+System content providers that are likely to contain personal or personally
+identifiable information such as contacts and calendar have been created with
+clearly identified permissions. This granularity provides the user with clear
+indication of the types of information that may be provided to the application.
+ During installation, a third-party application may request permission to
+access these resources.  If permission is granted, the application can be
+installed and will have access to the data requested at any time when it is
+installed.
+
+Any applications which collect personal information will, by default, have that
+data restricted only to the specific application.  If an application chooses to
+make the data available to other applications though IPC, the application
+granting access can apply permissions to the IPC mechanism that are enforced by
+the operating system.
+
+##Sensitive Data Input Devices
+
+Android devices frequently provide sensitive data input devices that allow
+applications to interact with the surrounding environment, such as camera,
+microphone or GPS.  For a third-party application to access these devices, it
+must first be explicitly provided access by the user through the use of Android
+OS Permissions.  Upon installation, the installer will prompt the user
+requesting permission to the sensor by name.
+
+If an application wants to know the user's location, the application requires a
+permission to access the user's location. Upon installation, the installer will
+prompt the user asking if the application can access the user's location. At
+any time, if the user does not want any application to access their location,
+then the user can run the "Settings" application, go to "Location & Security",
+and uncheck the "Use wireless networks" and "Enable GPS satellites". This will
+disable location based services for all applications on the user's device.
+
+##Device Metadata
+
+Android also strives to restrict access to data that is not intrinsically
+sensitive, but may indirectly reveal characteristics about the user, user
+preferences, and the manner in which they use a device.
+
+By default applications do not have access to operating system logs,
+browser history, phone number, or hardware / network identification
+information.  If an application requests access to this information at install
+time, the installer will prompt the user asking if the application can access
+the information. If the user does not grant access, the application will not be
+installed.
+
+##Application Signing
+
+Code signing allows developers to identify the author of the application and to
+update their application without creating complicated interfaces and
+permissions. Every application that is run on the Android platform must be
+signed by the developer.  Applications that attempt to install without being
+signed will rejected by either the Android Market or the package installer on
+the Android device.
+
+On Android Market, application signing bridges the trust Google has with the
+developer and the trust the developer has with their application.  Developers
+know their application is provided, unmodified to the Android device; and
+developers can be held accountable for behavior of their application.
+
+On Android, application signing is the first step to placing an application in
+its Application Sandbox. The signed application certificate defines which user
+id is associated with which application; different applications run under
+different user IDs. Application signing ensures that one application cannot
+access any other application except through well-defined IPC.
+
+When an application (APK file) is installed onto an Android device, the Package
+Manager verifies that the APK has been properly signed with the certificate
+included in that APK.  If the certificate (or, more accurately, the public key
+in the certificate) matches the key used to sign any other APK on the device,
+the new APK has the option to specify in the manifest that it will share a UID
+with the other similarly-signed APKs.
+
+Applications can be signed by a third-party (OEM, operator, alternative market)
+or self-signed. Android provides code signing using self-signed certificates
+that developers can generate without external assistance or permission.
+Applications do not have to be signed by a central authority. Android currently
+does not perform CA verification for application certificates.
+
+Applications are also able to declare security permissions at the Signature
+protection level, restricting access only to applications signed with the same
+key while maintaining distinct UIDs and Application Sandboxes. A closer
+relationship with a shared Application Sandbox is allowed via the [shared UID
+feature](http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/manifest/manifest-element.htm
+l#uid) where two or more applications signed with same developer key can
+declare a shared UID in their manifest.
+
+##Digital Rights Management
+
+The Android platform provides an extensible DRM framework that lets
+applications manage rights-protected content according to the license
+constraints that are associated with the content. The DRM framework supports
+many DRM schemes; which DRM schemes a device supports is left to the device
+manufacturer.
+
+The [Android DRM
+framework](http://developer.android.com/reference/android/drm/package-summary.ht
+ml) is implemented in two architectural layers (see figure below):
+
++ A DRM framework API, which is exposed to applications through the Android
+application framework and runs through the Dalvik VM for standard applications.
+
++ A native code DRM manager, which implements the DRM framework and exposes an
+interface for DRM plug-ins (agents) to handle rights management and decryption
+for various DRM schemes
+
+![Figure 4: Architecture of Digital Rights Management on Android
+platform](images/image02.png)
+
+*Figure 4: Architecture of Digital Rights Management on Android platform*
+
+#Android Updates
+
+Android provides system updates for both security and feature related purposes.
+
+There are two ways to update the code on most Android devices: over-the-air
+(OTA updates) or side-loaded updates. OTA updates can be rolled out over a
+defined time period or be pushed to all devices at once, depending on how the
+OEM and/or carrier would like to push the updates. Side-loaded updates can be
+provided from a central location for users to download as a zip file to their
+local desktop machine or directly to their handset. Once the update is copied
+or downloaded to the SD card on the device, Android will recognize the update,
+verify its integrity and authenticity, and automatically update the device.
+
+If a dangerous vulnerability is discovered internally or responsibly reported
+to Google or the Android Open Source Project, the Android security team will
+start the following process.
+
+1. The Android team will notify companies who have signed NDAs regarding the
+problem and begin discussing the solution.
+2. The owners of code will begin the fix.
+3. The Android team will fix Android-related security issues.
+4. When a patch is available, the fix is provided to the NDA companies.
+5. The Android team will publish the patch in the Android Open Source Project
+6. OEM/carrier will push an update to customers.
+
+The NDA is required to ensure that the security issue does not become public
+prior to availabilty of a fix and put users at risk. Many OHA members run their
+own code on Android devices such as the bootloader, wifi drivers, and the
+radio. Once the Android Security team is notified of a security issue in this
+partner code, they will consult with OHA partners to quickly find a fix for the
+problem at hand and similar problems. However, the OHA member who wrote the
+faulty code is ultimately responsible for fixing the problem.
+
+If a dangerous vulnerability is not responsibly disclosed (e.g., if it is
+posted to a public forum without warning), then Google and/or the Android Open
+Source Project will work as quickly as possible to create a patch. The patch
+will released to the public (and any partners) when the patch is tested and
+ready for use.
+
+At Google I/O 2011, many of the largest OHA partners committed to providing
+updates to devices for 18 months after initial shipment. This will provide
+users with access to the most recent Android features, as well as security
+updates.
+
+Any developer, Android user, or security researcher can notify the Android
+security team of potential security issues by sending email to
+security@android.com. If desired, communication can be encrypted using the
+Android security team PGP key available here:
+[https://developer.android.com/security_at_android_dot_com.txt](https://develope
+r.android.com/security_at_android_dot_com.txt).
+
+#Other Resources
+
+Information about the Android Open Source Project is available at
+[http://source.android.com](http://source.android.com).
+
+Information for Android application developers is here:
+[http://developer.android.com](http://developer.android.com).
+
+The Android Security team can be reached at
+[security@android.com](mailto:security@android.com).
+
+Security information exists throughout the Android Open Source and Developer
+Sites. A good place to start is here:
+[http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/security/security.html](http://develo
+per.android.com/guide/topics/security/security.html).
+
+A Security FAQ for developers is located here:
+[http://developer.android.com/resources/faq/security.html](http://developer.andr
+oid.com/resources/faq/security.html).
+
+A community resource for discussion about Android security exists here:
+[http://groups.google.com/group/android-security-discuss](http://groups.google.c
+om/group/android-security-discuss).
+
diff --git a/src/tech/sidebar.md b/src/tech/sidebar.md
index b770eb8..4d8a6e7 100644
--- a/src/tech/sidebar.md
+++ b/src/tech/sidebar.md
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
 # Topics #
 - [Dalvik](/tech/dalvik/index.html)
 - [Encryption](/tech/encryption/index.html)
+- [Security](/tech/security/index.html)