Move the 3k reST doc tree in place.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst b/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..052785c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,3676 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _concrete:
+
+**********************
+Concrete Objects Layer
+**********************
+
+The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object types.
+Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if you receive an
+object from a Python program and you are not sure that it has the right type,
+you must perform a type check first; for example, to check that an object is a
+dictionary, use :cfunc:`PyDict_Check`. The chapter is structured like the
+"family tree" of Python object types.
+
+.. warning::
+
+ While the functions described in this chapter carefully check the type of the
+ objects which are passed in, many of them do not check for *NULL* being passed
+ instead of a valid object. Allowing *NULL* to be passed in can cause memory
+ access violations and immediate termination of the interpreter.
+
+
+.. _fundamental:
+
+Fundamental Objects
+===================
+
+This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object ``None``.
+
+
+.. _typeobjects:
+
+Type Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: type
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyTypeObject
+
+ The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyObject* PyType_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: TypeType (in module types)
+
+ This is the type object for type objects; it is the same object as ``type`` and
+ ``types.TypeType`` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a type object, including instances of types
+ derived from the standard type object. Return false in all other cases.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a type object, but not a subtype of the
+ standard type object. Return false in all other cases.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_HasFeature(PyObject *o, int feature)
+
+ Return true if the type object *o* sets the feature *feature*. Type features
+ are denoted by single bit flags.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_IS_GC(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this
+ tests the type flag :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_IsSubtype(PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
+
+ Return true if *a* is a subtype of *b*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyType_GenericAlloc(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyType_GenericNew(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyType_Ready(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+ Finalize a type object. This should be called on all type objects to finish
+ their initialization. This function is responsible for adding inherited slots
+ from a type's base class. Return ``0`` on success, or return ``-1`` and sets an
+ exception on error.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. _noneobject:
+
+The None Object
+---------------
+
+.. index:: object: None
+
+Note that the :ctype:`PyTypeObject` for ``None`` is not directly exposed in the
+Python/C API. Since ``None`` is a singleton, testing for object identity (using
+``==`` in C) is sufficient. There is no :cfunc:`PyNone_Check` function for the
+same reason.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyObject* Py_None
+
+ The Python ``None`` object, denoting lack of value. This object has no methods.
+ It needs to be treated just like any other object with respect to reference
+ counts.
+
+
+.. cmacro:: Py_RETURN_NONE
+
+ Properly handle returning :cdata:`Py_None` from within a C function.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. _numericobjects:
+
+Numeric Objects
+===============
+
+.. index:: object: numeric
+
+
+.. _intobjects:
+
+Plain Integer Objects
+---------------------
+
+.. index:: object: integer
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyIntObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python integer object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyInt_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: IntType (in modules types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python plain integer type.
+ This is the same object as ``int`` and ``types.IntType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyInt_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if *o* is of type :cdata:`PyInt_Type` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyInt_Type`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyInt_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if *o* is of type :cdata:`PyInt_Type`, but not a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyInt_Type`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyInt_FromString(char *str, char **pend, int base)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyIntObject` or :ctype:`PyLongObject` based on the string
+ value in *str*, which is interpreted according to the radix in *base*. If
+ *pend* is non-*NULL*, ``*pend`` will point to the first character in *str* which
+ follows the representation of the number. If *base* is ``0``, the radix will be
+ determined based on the leading characters of *str*: if *str* starts with
+ ``'0x'`` or ``'0X'``, radix 16 will be used; if *str* starts with ``'0'``, radix
+ 8 will be used; otherwise radix 10 will be used. If *base* is not ``0``, it
+ must be between ``2`` and ``36``, inclusive. Leading spaces are ignored. If
+ there are no digits, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised. If the string represents
+ a number too large to be contained within the machine's :ctype:`long int` type
+ and overflow warnings are being suppressed, a :ctype:`PyLongObject` will be
+ returned. If overflow warnings are not being suppressed, *NULL* will be
+ returned in this case.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyInt_FromLong(long ival)
+
+ Create a new integer object with a value of *ival*.
+
+ The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers
+ between ``-5`` and ``256``, when you create an int in that range you actually
+ just get back a reference to the existing object. So it should be possible to
+ change the value of ``1``. I suspect the behaviour of Python in this case is
+ undefined. :-)
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyInt_FromSsize_t(Py_ssize_t ival)
+
+ Create a new integer object with a value of *ival*. If the value exceeds
+ ``LONG_MAX``, a long integer object is returned.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.5
+
+
+.. cfunction:: long PyInt_AsLong(PyObject *io)
+
+ Will first attempt to cast the object to a :ctype:`PyIntObject`, if it is not
+ already one, and then return its value. If there is an error, ``-1`` is
+ returned, and the caller should check ``PyErr_Occurred()`` to find out whether
+ there was an error, or whether the value just happened to be -1.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: long PyInt_AS_LONG(PyObject *io)
+
+ Return the value of the object *io*. No error checking is performed.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned long PyInt_AsUnsignedLongMask(PyObject *io)
+
+ Will first attempt to cast the object to a :ctype:`PyIntObject` or
+ :ctype:`PyLongObject`, if it is not already one, and then return its value as
+ unsigned long. This function does not check for overflow.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned PY_LONG_LONG PyInt_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(PyObject *io)
+
+ Will first attempt to cast the object to a :ctype:`PyIntObject` or
+ :ctype:`PyLongObject`, if it is not already one, and then return its value as
+ unsigned long long, without checking for overflow.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyInt_AsSsize_t(PyObject *io)
+
+ Will first attempt to cast the object to a :ctype:`PyIntObject` or
+ :ctype:`PyLongObject`, if it is not already one, and then return its value as
+ :ctype:`Py_ssize_t`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.5
+
+
+.. cfunction:: long PyInt_GetMax()
+
+ .. index:: single: LONG_MAX
+
+ Return the system's idea of the largest integer it can handle
+ (:const:`LONG_MAX`, as defined in the system header files).
+
+
+.. _boolobjects:
+
+Boolean Objects
+---------------
+
+Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers. There are only
+two booleans, :const:`Py_False` and :const:`Py_True`. As such, the normal
+creation and deletion functions don't apply to booleans. The following macros
+are available, however.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyBool_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if *o* is of type :cdata:`PyBool_Type`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyObject* Py_False
+
+ The Python ``False`` object. This object has no methods. It needs to be
+ treated just like any other object with respect to reference counts.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyObject* Py_True
+
+ The Python ``True`` object. This object has no methods. It needs to be treated
+ just like any other object with respect to reference counts.
+
+
+.. cmacro:: Py_RETURN_FALSE
+
+ Return :const:`Py_False` from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+ count.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cmacro:: Py_RETURN_TRUE
+
+ Return :const:`Py_True` from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+ count.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBool_FromLong(long v)
+
+ Return a new reference to :const:`Py_True` or :const:`Py_False` depending on the
+ truth value of *v*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. _longobjects:
+
+Long Integer Objects
+--------------------
+
+.. index:: object: long integer
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyLongObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python long integer object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyLong_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: LongType (in modules types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python long integer type.
+ This is the same object as ``long`` and ``types.LongType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyLong_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyLongObject` or a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyLongObject`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyLong_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyLongObject`, but not a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyLongObject`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromLong(long v)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` object from *v*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(unsigned long v)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` object from a C :ctype:`unsigned long`, or
+ *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromLongLong(PY_LONG_LONG v)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` object from a C :ctype:`long long`, or *NULL*
+ on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(unsigned PY_LONG_LONG v)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` object from a C :ctype:`unsigned long long`,
+ or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromDouble(double v)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` object from the integer part of *v*, or
+ *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromString(char *str, char **pend, int base)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyLongObject` based on the string value in *str*, which is
+ interpreted according to the radix in *base*. If *pend* is non-*NULL*,
+ ``*pend`` will point to the first character in *str* which follows the
+ representation of the number. If *base* is ``0``, the radix will be determined
+ based on the leading characters of *str*: if *str* starts with ``'0x'`` or
+ ``'0X'``, radix 16 will be used; if *str* starts with ``'0'``, radix 8 will be
+ used; otherwise radix 10 will be used. If *base* is not ``0``, it must be
+ between ``2`` and ``36``, inclusive. Leading spaces are ignored. If there are
+ no digits, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnicode(Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t length, int base)
+
+ Convert a sequence of Unicode digits to a Python long integer value. The first
+ parameter, *u*, points to the first character of the Unicode string, *length*
+ gives the number of characters, and *base* is the radix for the conversion. The
+ radix must be in the range [2, 36]; if it is out of range, :exc:`ValueError`
+ will be raised.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 1.6
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyLong_FromVoidPtr(void *p)
+
+ Create a Python integer or long integer from the pointer *p*. The pointer value
+ can be retrieved from the resulting value using :cfunc:`PyLong_AsVoidPtr`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 1.5.2
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.5
+ If the integer is larger than LONG_MAX, a positive long integer is returned.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: long PyLong_AsLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ .. index::
+ single: LONG_MAX
+ single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`long` representation of the contents of *pylong*. If
+ *pylong* is greater than :const:`LONG_MAX`, an :exc:`OverflowError` is raised.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ .. index::
+ single: ULONG_MAX
+ single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`unsigned long` representation of the contents of *pylong*.
+ If *pylong* is greater than :const:`ULONG_MAX`, an :exc:`OverflowError` is
+ raised.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PY_LONG_LONG PyLong_AsLongLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`long long` from a Python long integer. If *pylong* cannot be
+ represented as a :ctype:`long long`, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned PY_LONG_LONG PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`unsigned long long` from a Python long integer. If *pylong*
+ cannot be represented as an :ctype:`unsigned long long`, an :exc:`OverflowError`
+ will be raised if the value is positive, or a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if
+ the value is negative.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(PyObject *io)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`unsigned long` from a Python long integer, without checking
+ for overflow.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: unsigned PY_LONG_LONG PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(PyObject *io)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`unsigned long long` from a Python long integer, without
+ checking for overflow.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double PyLong_AsDouble(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`double` representation of the contents of *pylong*. If
+ *pylong* cannot be approximately represented as a :ctype:`double`, an
+ :exc:`OverflowError` exception is raised and ``-1.0`` will be returned.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void* PyLong_AsVoidPtr(PyObject *pylong)
+
+ Convert a Python integer or long integer *pylong* to a C :ctype:`void` pointer.
+ If *pylong* cannot be converted, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised. This
+ is only assured to produce a usable :ctype:`void` pointer for values created
+ with :cfunc:`PyLong_FromVoidPtr`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 1.5.2
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.5
+ For values outside 0..LONG_MAX, both signed and unsigned integers are acccepted.
+
+
+.. _floatobjects:
+
+Floating Point Objects
+----------------------
+
+.. index:: object: floating point
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyFloatObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python floating point object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyFloat_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: FloatType (in modules types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python floating point
+ type. This is the same object as ``float`` and ``types.FloatType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFloat_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyFloatObject` or a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyFloatObject`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFloat_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyFloatObject`, but not a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyFloatObject`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFloat_FromString(PyObject *str)
+
+ Create a :ctype:`PyFloatObject` object based on the string value in *str*, or
+ *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFloat_FromDouble(double v)
+
+ Create a :ctype:`PyFloatObject` object from *v*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double PyFloat_AsDouble(PyObject *pyfloat)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`double` representation of the contents of *pyfloat*. If
+ *pyfloat* is not a Python floating point object but has a :meth:`__float__`
+ method, this method will first be called to convert *pyfloat* into a float.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE(PyObject *pyfloat)
+
+ Return a C :ctype:`double` representation of the contents of *pyfloat*, but
+ without error checking.
+
+
+.. _complexobjects:
+
+Complex Number Objects
+----------------------
+
+.. index:: object: complex number
+
+Python's complex number objects are implemented as two distinct types when
+viewed from the C API: one is the Python object exposed to Python programs, and
+the other is a C structure which represents the actual complex number value.
+The API provides functions for working with both.
+
+
+Complex Numbers as C Structures
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Note that the functions which accept these structures as parameters and return
+them as results do so *by value* rather than dereferencing them through
+pointers. This is consistent throughout the API.
+
+
+.. ctype:: Py_complex
+
+ The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex
+ number object. Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects
+ use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate. It is
+ defined as::
+
+ typedef struct {
+ double real;
+ double imag;
+ } Py_complex;
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_sum(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+ Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C :ctype:`Py_complex`
+ representation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_diff(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+ Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C
+ :ctype:`Py_complex` representation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_neg(Py_complex complex)
+
+ Return the negation of the complex number *complex*, using the C
+ :ctype:`Py_complex` representation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_prod(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+ Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C :ctype:`Py_complex`
+ representation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_quot(Py_complex dividend, Py_complex divisor)
+
+ Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C :ctype:`Py_complex`
+ representation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex _Py_c_pow(Py_complex num, Py_complex exp)
+
+ Return the exponentiation of *num* by *exp*, using the C :ctype:`Py_complex`
+ representation.
+
+
+Complex Numbers as Python Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyComplexObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python complex number object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyComplex_Type
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python complex number
+ type. It is the same object as ``complex`` and ``types.ComplexType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyComplex_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyComplexObject` or a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyComplexObject`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyComplex_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyComplexObject`, but not a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyComplexObject`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromCComplex(Py_complex v)
+
+ Create a new Python complex number object from a C :ctype:`Py_complex` value.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromDoubles(double real, double imag)
+
+ Return a new :ctype:`PyComplexObject` object from *real* and *imag*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the real part of *op* as a C :ctype:`double`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the imaginary part of *op* as a C :ctype:`double`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_complex PyComplex_AsCComplex(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the :ctype:`Py_complex` value of the complex number *op*.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.6
+ If *op* is not a Python complex number object but has a :meth:`__complex__`
+ method, this method will first be called to convert *op* to a Python complex
+ number object.
+
+
+.. _sequenceobjects:
+
+Sequence Objects
+================
+
+.. index:: object: sequence
+
+Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous chapter;
+this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects that are
+intrinsic to the Python language.
+
+
+.. _stringobjects:
+
+String Objects
+--------------
+
+These functions raise :exc:`TypeError` when expecting a string parameter and are
+called with a non-string parameter.
+
+.. index:: object: string
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyStringObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python string object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyString_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: StringType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python string type; it is
+ the same object as ``str`` and ``types.StringType`` in the Python layer. .
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyString_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a string object or an instance of a subtype of
+ the string type.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyString_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a string object, but not an instance of a
+ subtype of the string type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_FromString(const char *v)
+
+ Return a new string object with a copy of the string *v* as value on success,
+ and *NULL* on failure. The parameter *v* must not be *NULL*; it will not be
+ checked.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_FromStringAndSize(const char *v, Py_ssize_t len)
+
+ Return a new string object with a copy of the string *v* as value and length
+ *len* on success, and *NULL* on failure. If *v* is *NULL*, the contents of the
+ string are uninitialized.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)
+
+ Take a C :cfunc:`printf`\ -style *format* string and a variable number of
+ arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python string and return a string
+ with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C types and
+ must correspond exactly to the format characters in the *format* string. The
+ following format characters are allowed:
+
+ .. % This should be exactly the same as the table in PyErr_Format.
+ .. % One should just refer to the other.
+ .. % The descriptions for %zd and %zu are wrong, but the truth is complicated
+ .. % because not all compilers support the %z width modifier -- we fake it
+ .. % when necessary via interpolating PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T.
+ .. % %u, %lu, %zu should have "new in Python 2.5" blurbs.
+
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | Format Characters | Type | Comment |
+ +===================+===============+================================+
+ | :attr:`%%` | *n/a* | The literal % character. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%c` | int | A single character, |
+ | | | represented as an C int. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%d` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%d")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%u` | unsigned int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%u")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%ld` | long | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%ld")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%lu` | unsigned long | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%lu")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%zd` | Py_ssize_t | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%zd")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%zu` | size_t | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%zu")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%i` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%i")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%x` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%x")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%s` | char\* | A null-terminated C character |
+ | | | array. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%p` | void\* | The hex representation of a C |
+ | | | pointer. Mostly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%p")`` except that |
+ | | | it is guaranteed to start with |
+ | | | the literal ``0x`` regardless |
+ | | | of what the platform's |
+ | | | ``printf`` yields. |
+ +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+
+ An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+ copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+ Identical to :func:`PyString_FromFormat` except that it takes exactly two
+ arguments.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyString_Size(PyObject *string)
+
+ Return the length of the string in string object *string*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyString_GET_SIZE(PyObject *string)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PyString_Size` but without error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: char* PyString_AsString(PyObject *string)
+
+ Return a NUL-terminated representation of the contents of *string*. The pointer
+ refers to the internal buffer of *string*, not a copy. The data must not be
+ modified in any way, unless the string was just created using
+ ``PyString_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)``. It must not be deallocated. If
+ *string* is a Unicode object, this function computes the default encoding of
+ *string* and operates on that. If *string* is not a string object at all,
+ :cfunc:`PyString_AsString` returns *NULL* and raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: char* PyString_AS_STRING(PyObject *string)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PyString_AsString` but without error checking. Only
+ string objects are supported; no Unicode objects should be passed.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyString_AsStringAndSize(PyObject *obj, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length)
+
+ Return a NUL-terminated representation of the contents of the object *obj*
+ through the output variables *buffer* and *length*.
+
+ The function accepts both string and Unicode objects as input. For Unicode
+ objects it returns the default encoded version of the object. If *length* is
+ *NULL*, the resulting buffer may not contain NUL characters; if it does, the
+ function returns ``-1`` and a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+ The buffer refers to an internal string buffer of *obj*, not a copy. The data
+ must not be modified in any way, unless the string was just created using
+ ``PyString_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)``. It must not be deallocated. If
+ *string* is a Unicode object, this function computes the default encoding of
+ *string* and operates on that. If *string* is not a string object at all,
+ :cfunc:`PyString_AsStringAndSize` returns ``-1`` and raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyString_Concat(PyObject **string, PyObject *newpart)
+
+ Create a new string object in *\*string* containing the contents of *newpart*
+ appended to *string*; the caller will own the new reference. The reference to
+ the old value of *string* will be stolen. If the new string cannot be created,
+ the old reference to *string* will still be discarded and the value of
+ *\*string* will be set to *NULL*; the appropriate exception will be set.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyString_ConcatAndDel(PyObject **string, PyObject *newpart)
+
+ Create a new string object in *\*string* containing the contents of *newpart*
+ appended to *string*. This version decrements the reference count of *newpart*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int _PyString_Resize(PyObject **string, Py_ssize_t newsize)
+
+ A way to resize a string object even though it is "immutable". Only use this to
+ build up a brand new string object; don't use this if the string may already be
+ known in other parts of the code. It is an error to call this function if the
+ refcount on the input string object is not one. Pass the address of an existing
+ string object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size desired.
+ On success, *\*string* holds the resized string object and ``0`` is returned;
+ the address in *\*string* may differ from its input value. If the reallocation
+ fails, the original string object at *\*string* is deallocated, *\*string* is
+ set to *NULL*, a memory exception is set, and ``-1`` is returned.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_Format(PyObject *format, PyObject *args)
+
+ Return a new string object from *format* and *args*. Analogous to ``format %
+ args``. The *args* argument must be a tuple.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyString_InternInPlace(PyObject **string)
+
+ Intern the argument *\*string* in place. The argument must be the address of a
+ pointer variable pointing to a Python string object. If there is an existing
+ interned string that is the same as *\*string*, it sets *\*string* to it
+ (decrementing the reference count of the old string object and incrementing the
+ reference count of the interned string object), otherwise it leaves *\*string*
+ alone and interns it (incrementing its reference count). (Clarification: even
+ though there is a lot of talk about reference counts, think of this function as
+ reference-count-neutral; you own the object after the call if and only if you
+ owned it before the call.)
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_InternFromString(const char *v)
+
+ A combination of :cfunc:`PyString_FromString` and
+ :cfunc:`PyString_InternInPlace`, returning either a new string object that has
+ been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier interned string object
+ with the same value.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_Decode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Create an object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded buffer *s* using the
+ codec registered for *encoding*. *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning
+ as the parameters of the same name in the :func:`unicode` built-in function.
+ The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return
+ *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_AsDecodedObject(PyObject *str, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Decode a string object by passing it to the codec registered for *encoding* and
+ return the result as Python object. *encoding* and *errors* have the same
+ meaning as the parameters of the same name in the string :meth:`encode` method.
+ The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL*
+ if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_Encode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`char` buffer of the given size by passing it to the codec
+ registered for *encoding* and return a Python object. *encoding* and *errors*
+ have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name in the string
+ :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec
+ registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyString_AsEncodedObject(PyObject *str, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode a string object using the codec registered for *encoding* and return the
+ result as Python object. *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the
+ parameters of the same name in the string :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be
+ used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception
+ was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. _unicodeobjects:
+
+Unicode Objects
+---------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Marc-Andre Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+
+
+These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode implementation in
+Python:
+
+.. % --- Unicode Type -------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. ctype:: Py_UNICODE
+
+ This type represents the storage type which is used by Python internally as
+ basis for holding Unicode ordinals. Python's default builds use a 16-bit type
+ for :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` and store Unicode values internally as UCS2. It is also
+ possible to build a UCS4 version of Python (most recent Linux distributions come
+ with UCS4 builds of Python). These builds then use a 32-bit type for
+ :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` and store Unicode data internally as UCS4. On platforms
+ where :ctype:`wchar_t` is available and compatible with the chosen Python
+ Unicode build variant, :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` is a typedef alias for
+ :ctype:`wchar_t` to enhance native platform compatibility. On all other
+ platforms, :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` is a typedef alias for either :ctype:`unsigned
+ short` (UCS2) or :ctype:`unsigned long` (UCS4).
+
+Note that UCS2 and UCS4 Python builds are not binary compatible. Please keep
+this in mind when writing extensions or interfaces.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyUnicodeObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python Unicode object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode type. It
+ is exposed to Python code as ``unicode`` and ``types.UnicodeType``.
+
+The following APIs are really C macros and can be used to do fast checks and to
+access internal read-only data of Unicode objects:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode
+ subtype.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a Unicode object, but not an instance of a
+ subtype.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return the size of the object. *o* has to be a :ctype:`PyUnicodeObject` (not
+ checked).
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return the size of the object's internal buffer in bytes. *o* has to be a
+ :ctype:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked).
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return a pointer to the internal :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the object. *o*
+ has to be a :ctype:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked).
+
+
+.. cfunction:: const char* PyUnicode_AS_DATA(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return a pointer to the internal buffer of the object. *o* has to be a
+ :ctype:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked).
+
+Unicode provides many different character properties. The most often needed ones
+are available through these macros which are mapped to C functions depending on
+the Python configuration.
+
+.. % --- Unicode character properties ---------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a whitespace character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a lowercase character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is an uppercase character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a titlecase character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a linebreak character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a decimal character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a digit character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is a numeric character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is an alphabetic character.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return 1 or 0 depending on whether *ch* is an alphanumeric character.
+
+These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to lower case.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to upper case.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to title case.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to a decimal positive integer. Return
+ ``-1`` if this is not possible. This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to a single digit integer. Return ``-1`` if
+ this is not possible. This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+ Return the character *ch* converted to a double. Return ``-1.0`` if this is not
+ possible. This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these
+APIs:
+
+.. % --- Plain Py_UNICODE ---------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromUnicode(const Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Create a Unicode Object from the Py_UNICODE buffer *u* of the given size. *u*
+ may be *NULL* which causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's
+ responsibility to fill in the needed data. The buffer is copied into the new
+ object. If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object.
+ Therefore, modification of the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when *u*
+ is *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(const char *u, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Create a Unicode Object from the char buffer *u*. The bytes will be interpreted
+ as being UTF-8 encoded. *u* may also be *NULL* which
+ causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's responsibility to fill in
+ the needed data. The buffer is copied into the new object. If the buffer is not
+ *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object. Therefore, modification of
+ the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when *u* is *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject *PyUnicode_FromString(const char *u)
+
+ Create a Unicode object from an UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer
+ *u*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)
+
+ Take a C :cfunc:`printf`\ -style *format* string and a variable number of
+ arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python unicode string and return
+ a string with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C
+ types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the *format*
+ string. The following format characters are allowed:
+
+ .. % The descriptions for %zd and %zu are wrong, but the truth is complicated
+ .. % because not all compilers support the %z width modifier -- we fake it
+ .. % when necessary via interpolating PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T.
+
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | Format Characters | Type | Comment |
+ +===================+=====================+================================+
+ | :attr:`%%` | *n/a* | The literal % character. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%c` | int | A single character, |
+ | | | represented as an C int. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%d` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%d")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%u` | unsigned int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%u")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%ld` | long | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%ld")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%lu` | unsigned long | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%lu")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%zd` | Py_ssize_t | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%zd")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%zu` | size_t | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%zu")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%i` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%i")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%x` | int | Exactly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%x")``. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%s` | char\* | A null-terminated C character |
+ | | | array. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%p` | void\* | The hex representation of a C |
+ | | | pointer. Mostly equivalent to |
+ | | | ``printf("%p")`` except that |
+ | | | it is guaranteed to start with |
+ | | | the literal ``0x`` regardless |
+ | | | of what the platform's |
+ | | | ``printf`` yields. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%U` | PyObject\* | A unicode object. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%V` | PyObject\*, char \* | A unicode object (which may be |
+ | | | *NULL*) and a null-terminated |
+ | | | C character array as a second |
+ | | | parameter (which will be used, |
+ | | | if the first parameter is |
+ | | | *NULL*). |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%S` | PyObject\* | The result of calling |
+ | | | :func:`PyObject_Unicode`. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+ | :attr:`%R` | PyObject\* | The result of calling |
+ | | | :func:`PyObject_Repr`. |
+ +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+
+ An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+ copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+ Identical to :func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` except that it takes exactly two
+ arguments.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicode(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Return a read-only pointer to the Unicode object's internal :ctype:`Py_UNICODE`
+ buffer, *NULL* if *unicode* is not a Unicode object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetSize(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Return the length of the Unicode object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Coerce an encoded object *obj* to an Unicode object and return a reference with
+ incremented refcount.
+
+ String and other char buffer compatible objects are decoded according to the
+ given encoding and using the error handling defined by errors. Both can be
+ *NULL* to have the interface use the default values (see the next section for
+ details).
+
+ All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a :exc:`TypeError` to be
+ set.
+
+ The API returns *NULL* if there was an error. The caller is responsible for
+ decref'ing the returned objects.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
+
+ Shortcut for ``PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(obj, NULL, "strict")`` which is used
+ throughout the interpreter whenever coercion to Unicode is needed.
+
+If the platform supports :ctype:`wchar_t` and provides a header file wchar.h,
+Python can interface directly to this type using the following functions.
+Support is optimized if Python's own :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` type is identical to
+the system's :ctype:`wchar_t`.
+
+.. % --- wchar_t support for platforms which support it ---------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromWideChar(const wchar_t *w, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Create a Unicode object from the :ctype:`wchar_t` buffer *w* of the given size.
+ Return *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_AsWideChar(PyUnicodeObject *unicode, wchar_t *w, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Copy the Unicode object contents into the :ctype:`wchar_t` buffer *w*. At most
+ *size* :ctype:`wchar_t` characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing
+ 0-termination character). Return the number of :ctype:`wchar_t` characters
+ copied or -1 in case of an error. Note that the resulting :ctype:`wchar_t`
+ string may or may not be 0-terminated. It is the responsibility of the caller
+ to make sure that the :ctype:`wchar_t` string is 0-terminated in case this is
+ required by the application.
+
+
+.. _builtincodecs:
+
+Built-in Codecs
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python provides a set of builtin codecs which are written in C for speed. All of
+these codecs are directly usable via the following functions.
+
+Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors. These
+parameters encoding and errors have the same semantics as the ones of the
+builtin unicode() Unicode object constructor.
+
+Setting encoding to *NULL* causes the default encoding to be used which is
+ASCII. The file system calls should use :cdata:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding`
+as the encoding for file names. This variable should be treated as read-only: On
+some systems, it will be a pointer to a static string, on others, it will change
+at run-time (such as when the application invokes setlocale).
+
+Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to *NULL* meaning to use
+the default handling defined for the codec. Default error handling for all
+builtin codecs is "strict" (:exc:`ValueError` is raised).
+
+The codecs all use a similar interface. Only deviation from the following
+generic ones are documented for simplicity.
+
+These are the generic codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- Generic Codecs -----------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Decode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s*.
+ *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name
+ in the :func:`unicode` builtin function. The codec to be used is looked up
+ using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+ the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Encode(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size and return a Python
+ string object. *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters
+ of the same name in the Unicode :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be used is
+ looked up using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was
+ raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python string object.
+ *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name
+ in the Unicode :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be used is looked up using
+ the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the
+ codec.
+
+These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- UTF-8 Codecs -------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string
+ *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+ If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :cfunc:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8`. If
+ *consumed* is not *NULL*, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be
+ treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
+ that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using UTF-8 and return a
+ Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using UTF-8 and return the result as Python string
+ object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was raised
+ by the codec.
+
+These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- UTF-16 Codecs ------------------------------------------------------ */
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
+
+ Decode *length* bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the
+ corresponding Unicode object. *errors* (if non-*NULL*) defines the error
+ handling. It defaults to "strict".
+
+ If *byteorder* is non-*NULL*, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte
+ order::
+
+ *byteorder == -1: little endian
+ *byteorder == 0: native order
+ *byteorder == 1: big endian
+
+ and then switches if the first two bytes of the input data are a byte order mark
+ (BOM) and the specified byte order is native order. This BOM is not copied into
+ the resulting Unicode string. After completion, *\*byteorder* is set to the
+ current byte order at the.
+
+ If *byteorder* is *NULL*, the codec starts in native order mode.
+
+ Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+ If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :cfunc:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16`. If
+ *consumed* is not *NULL*, :cfunc:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful` will not treat
+ trailing incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or a
+ split surrogate pair) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the
+ number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int byteorder)
+
+ Return a Python string object holding the UTF-16 encoded value of the Unicode
+ data in *s*. If *byteorder* is not ``0``, output is written according to the
+ following byte order::
+
+ byteorder == -1: little endian
+ byteorder == 0: native byte order (writes a BOM mark)
+ byteorder == 1: big endian
+
+ If byteorder is ``0``, the output string will always start with the Unicode BOM
+ mark (U+FEFF). In the other two modes, no BOM mark is prepended.
+
+ If *Py_UNICODE_WIDE* is defined, a single :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` value may get
+ represented as a surrogate pair. If it is not defined, each :ctype:`Py_UNICODE`
+ values is interpreted as an UCS-2 character.
+
+ Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Return a Python string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte order. The
+ string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". Return
+ *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- Unicode-Escape Codecs ----------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded
+ string *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using Unicode-Escape and
+ return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the
+ codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using Unicode-Escape and return the result as Python
+ string object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was
+ raised by the codec.
+
+These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs ------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape
+ encoded string *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using Raw-Unicode-Escape
+ and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+ the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as
+ Python string object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception
+ was raised by the codec.
+
+These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256 Unicode
+ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding.
+
+.. % --- Latin-1 Codecs -----------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Latin-1 encoded string
+ *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using Latin-1 and return
+ a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using Latin-1 and return the result as Python string
+ object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was raised
+ by the codec.
+
+These are the ASCII codec APIs. Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted. All other
+codes generate errors.
+
+.. % --- ASCII Codecs -------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the ASCII encoded string
+ *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using ASCII and return a
+ Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using ASCII and return the result as Python string
+ object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was raised
+ by the codec.
+
+These are the mapping codec APIs:
+
+.. % --- Character Map Codecs -----------------------------------------------
+
+This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different codecs
+(and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard codecs
+included in the :mod:`encodings` package). The codec uses mapping to encode and
+decode characters.
+
+Decoding mappings must map single string characters to single Unicode
+characters, integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode ordinals) or None
+(meaning "undefined mapping" and causing an error).
+
+Encoding mappings must map single Unicode characters to single string
+characters, integers (which are then interpreted as Latin-1 ordinals) or None
+(meaning "undefined mapping" and causing an error).
+
+The mapping objects provided must only support the __getitem__ mapping
+interface.
+
+If a character lookup fails with a LookupError, the character is copied as-is
+meaning that its ordinal value will be interpreted as Unicode or Latin-1 ordinal
+resp. Because of this, mappings only need to contain those mappings which map
+characters to different code points.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s* using
+ the given *mapping* object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the
+ codec. If *mapping* is *NULL* latin-1 decoding will be done. Else it can be a
+ dictionary mapping byte or a unicode string, which is treated as a lookup table.
+ Byte values greater that the length of the string and U+FFFE "characters" are
+ treated as "undefined mapping".
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.4
+ Allowed unicode string as mapping argument.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using the given
+ *mapping* object and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an
+ exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using the given *mapping* object and return the result
+ as Python string object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an
+ exception was raised by the codec.
+
+The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
+
+ Translate a :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given length by applying a
+ character mapping *table* to it and return the resulting Unicode object. Return
+ *NULL* when an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+ The *mapping* table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal
+ integers or None (causing deletion of the character).
+
+ Mapping tables need only provide the :meth:`__getitem__` interface; dictionaries
+ and sequences work well. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a
+ :exc:`LookupError`) are left untouched and are copied as-is.
+
+These are the MBCS codec APIs. They are currently only available on Windows and
+use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions. Note that MBCS (or
+DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one. The target encoding is defined by
+the user settings on the machine running the codec.
+
+.. % --- MBCS codecs for Windows --------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the MBCS encoded string *s*.
+ Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *s, int size, const char *errors, int *consumed)
+
+ If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :cfunc:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS`. If
+ *consumed* is not *NULL*, :cfunc:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful` will not decode
+ trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored
+ in *consumed*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.5
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+ Encode the :ctype:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using MBCS and return a
+ Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+ Encode a Unicode objects using MBCS and return the result as Python string
+ object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was raised
+ by the codec.
+
+.. % --- Methods & Slots ----------------------------------------------------
+
+
+.. _unicodemethodsandslots:
+
+Methods and Slot Functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings on input
+(we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return Unicode objects or
+integers as appropriate.
+
+They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Concat(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
+
+ Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Split(PyObject *s, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
+
+ Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings. If sep is *NULL*, splitting
+ will be done at all whitespace substrings. Otherwise, splits occur at the given
+ separator. At most *maxsplit* splits will be done. If negative, no limit is
+ set. Separators are not included in the resulting list.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Splitlines(PyObject *s, int keepend)
+
+ Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings.
+ CRLF is considered to be one line break. If *keepend* is 0, the Line break
+ characters are not included in the resulting strings.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *str, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
+
+ Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the
+ resulting Unicode object.
+
+ The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal integers
+ or None (causing deletion of the character).
+
+ Mapping tables need only provide the :meth:`__getitem__` interface; dictionaries
+ and sequences work well. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a
+ :exc:`LookupError`) are left untouched and are copied as-is.
+
+ *errors* has the usual meaning for codecs. It may be *NULL* which indicates to
+ use the default error handling.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Join(PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq)
+
+ Join a sequence of strings using the given separator and return the resulting
+ Unicode string.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)
+
+ Return 1 if *substr* matches *str*[*start*:*end*] at the given tail end
+ (*direction* == -1 means to do a prefix match, *direction* == 1 a suffix match),
+ 0 otherwise. Return ``-1`` if an error occurred.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)
+
+ Return the first position of *substr* in *str*[*start*:*end*] using the given
+ *direction* (*direction* == 1 means to do a forward search, *direction* == -1 a
+ backward search). The return value is the index of the first match; a value of
+ ``-1`` indicates that no match was found, and ``-2`` indicates that an error
+ occurred and an exception has been set.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
+
+ Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of *substr* in
+ ``str[start:end]``. Return ``-1`` if an error occurred.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
+
+ Replace at most *maxcount* occurrences of *substr* in *str* with *replstr* and
+ return the resulting Unicode object. *maxcount* == -1 means replace all
+ occurrences.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_Compare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
+
+ Compare two strings and return -1, 0, 1 for less than, equal, and greater than,
+ respectively.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op)
+
+ Rich compare two unicode strings and return one of the following:
+
+ * ``NULL`` in case an exception was raised
+ * :const:`Py_True` or :const:`Py_False` for successful comparisons
+ * :const:`Py_NotImplemented` in case the type combination is unknown
+
+ Note that :const:`Py_EQ` and :const:`Py_NE` comparisons can cause a
+ :exc:`UnicodeWarning` in case the conversion of the arguments to Unicode fails
+ with a :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`.
+
+ Possible values for *op* are :const:`Py_GT`, :const:`Py_GE`, :const:`Py_EQ`,
+ :const:`Py_NE`, :const:`Py_LT`, and :const:`Py_LE`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Format(PyObject *format, PyObject *args)
+
+ Return a new string object from *format* and *args*; this is analogous to
+ ``format % args``. The *args* argument must be a tuple.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyUnicode_Contains(PyObject *container, PyObject *element)
+
+ Check whether *element* is contained in *container* and return true or false
+ accordingly.
+
+ *element* has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. ``-1`` is returned if
+ there was an error.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace(PyObject **string)
+
+ Intern the argument *\*string* in place. The argument must be the address of a
+ pointer variable pointing to a Python unicode string object. If there is an
+ existing interned string that is the same as *\*string*, it sets *\*string* to
+ it (decrementing the reference count of the old string object and incrementing
+ the reference count of the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
+ *\*string* alone and interns it (incrementing its reference count).
+ (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about reference counts, think
+ of this function as reference-count-neutral; you own the object after the call
+ if and only if you owned it before the call.)
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *v)
+
+ A combination of :cfunc:`PyUnicode_FromString` and
+ :cfunc:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, returning either a new unicode string object
+ that has been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier interned
+ string object with the same value.
+
+
+.. _bufferobjects:
+
+Buffer Objects
+--------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Greg Stein <gstein@lyra.org>
+
+
+.. index::
+ object: buffer
+ single: buffer interface
+
+Python objects implemented in C can export a group of functions called the
+"buffer interface." These functions can be used by an object to expose its data
+in a raw, byte-oriented format. Clients of the object can use the buffer
+interface to access the object data directly, without needing to copy it first.
+
+Two examples of objects that support the buffer interface are strings and
+arrays. The string object exposes the character contents in the buffer
+interface's byte-oriented form. An array can also expose its contents, but it
+should be noted that array elements may be multi-byte values.
+
+An example user of the buffer interface is the file object's :meth:`write`
+method. Any object that can export a series of bytes through the buffer
+interface can be written to a file. There are a number of format codes to
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` that operate against an object's buffer interface,
+returning data from the target object.
+
+.. index:: single: PyBufferProcs
+
+More information on the buffer interface is provided in the section
+:ref:`buffer-structs`, under the description for :ctype:`PyBufferProcs`.
+
+A "buffer object" is defined in the :file:`bufferobject.h` header (included by
+:file:`Python.h`). These objects look very similar to string objects at the
+Python programming level: they support slicing, indexing, concatenation, and
+some other standard string operations. However, their data can come from one of
+two sources: from a block of memory, or from another object which exports the
+buffer interface.
+
+Buffer objects are useful as a way to expose the data from another object's
+buffer interface to the Python programmer. They can also be used as a zero-copy
+slicing mechanism. Using their ability to reference a block of memory, it is
+possible to expose any data to the Python programmer quite easily. The memory
+could be a large, constant array in a C extension, it could be a raw block of
+memory for manipulation before passing to an operating system library, or it
+could be used to pass around structured data in its native, in-memory format.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyBufferObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a buffer object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyBuffer_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: BufferType (in module types)
+
+ The instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` which represents the Python buffer type;
+ it is the same object as ``buffer`` and ``types.BufferType`` in the Python
+ layer. .
+
+
+.. cvar:: int Py_END_OF_BUFFER
+
+ This constant may be passed as the *size* parameter to
+ :cfunc:`PyBuffer_FromObject` or :cfunc:`PyBuffer_FromReadWriteObject`. It
+ indicates that the new :ctype:`PyBufferObject` should refer to *base* object
+ from the specified *offset* to the end of its exported buffer. Using this
+ enables the caller to avoid querying the *base* object for its length.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyBuffer_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if the argument has type :cdata:`PyBuffer_Type`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBuffer_FromObject(PyObject *base, Py_ssize_t offset, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Return a new read-only buffer object. This raises :exc:`TypeError` if *base*
+ doesn't support the read-only buffer protocol or doesn't provide exactly one
+ buffer segment, or it raises :exc:`ValueError` if *offset* is less than zero.
+ The buffer will hold a reference to the *base* object, and the buffer's contents
+ will refer to the *base* object's buffer interface, starting as position
+ *offset* and extending for *size* bytes. If *size* is :const:`Py_END_OF_BUFFER`,
+ then the new buffer's contents extend to the length of the *base* object's
+ exported buffer data.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBuffer_FromReadWriteObject(PyObject *base, Py_ssize_t offset, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Return a new writable buffer object. Parameters and exceptions are similar to
+ those for :cfunc:`PyBuffer_FromObject`. If the *base* object does not export
+ the writeable buffer protocol, then :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBuffer_FromMemory(void *ptr, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Return a new read-only buffer object that reads from a specified location in
+ memory, with a specified size. The caller is responsible for ensuring that the
+ memory buffer, passed in as *ptr*, is not deallocated while the returned buffer
+ object exists. Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *size* is less than zero. Note that
+ :const:`Py_END_OF_BUFFER` may *not* be passed for the *size* parameter;
+ :exc:`ValueError` will be raised in that case.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBuffer_FromReadWriteMemory(void *ptr, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Similar to :cfunc:`PyBuffer_FromMemory`, but the returned buffer is writable.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyBuffer_New(Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Return a new writable buffer object that maintains its own memory buffer of
+ *size* bytes. :exc:`ValueError` is returned if *size* is not zero or positive.
+ Note that the memory buffer (as returned by :cfunc:`PyObject_AsWriteBuffer`) is
+ not specifically aligned.
+
+
+.. _tupleobjects:
+
+Tuple Objects
+-------------
+
+.. index:: object: tuple
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyTupleObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python tuple object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyTuple_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: TupleType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python tuple type; it is
+ the same object as ``tuple`` and ``types.TupleType`` in the Python layer..
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTuple_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of the tuple
+ type.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTuple_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a tuple object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
+ tuple type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTuple_New(Py_ssize_t len)
+
+ Return a new tuple object of size *len*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTuple_Pack(Py_ssize_t n, ...)
+
+ Return a new tuple object of size *n*, or *NULL* on failure. The tuple values
+ are initialized to the subsequent *n* C arguments pointing to Python objects.
+ ``PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)`` is equivalent to ``Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTuple_Size(PyObject *p)
+
+ Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTuple_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return the size of the tuple *p*, which must be non-*NULL* and point to a tuple;
+ no error checking is performed.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+ Return the object at position *pos* in the tuple pointed to by *p*. If *pos* is
+ out of bounds, return *NULL* and sets an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTuple_GET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+ Like :cfunc:`PyTuple_GetItem`, but does no checking of its arguments.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetSlice(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
+
+ Take a slice of the tuple pointed to by *p* from *low* to *high* and return it
+ as a new tuple.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTuple_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
+
+ Insert a reference to object *o* at position *pos* of the tuple pointed to by
+ *p*. Return ``0`` on success.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
+
+ Like :cfunc:`PyTuple_SetItem`, but does no error checking, and should *only* be
+ used to fill in brand new tuples.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int _PyTuple_Resize(PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)
+
+ Can be used to resize a tuple. *newsize* will be the new length of the tuple.
+ Because tuples are *supposed* to be immutable, this should only be used if there
+ is only one reference to the object. Do *not* use this if the tuple may already
+ be known to some other part of the code. The tuple will always grow or shrink
+ at the end. Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
+ only more efficiently. Returns ``0`` on success. Client code should never
+ assume that the resulting value of ``*p`` will be the same as before calling
+ this function. If the object referenced by ``*p`` is replaced, the original
+ ``*p`` is destroyed. On failure, returns ``-1`` and sets ``*p`` to *NULL*, and
+ raises :exc:`MemoryError` or :exc:`SystemError`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Removed unused third parameter, *last_is_sticky*.
+
+
+.. _listobjects:
+
+List Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: list
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyListObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python list object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyList_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: ListType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python list type. This is
+ the same object as ``list`` and ``types.ListType`` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a list object or an instance of a subtype of the list
+ type.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a list object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
+ list type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyList_New(Py_ssize_t len)
+
+ Return a new list of length *len* on success, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ If *length* is greater than zero, the returned list object's items are set to
+ ``NULL``. Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as
+ :cfunc:`PySequence_SetItem` or expose the object to Python code before setting
+ all items to a real object with :cfunc:`PyList_SetItem`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyList_Size(PyObject *list)
+
+ .. index:: builtin: len
+
+ Return the length of the list object in *list*; this is equivalent to
+ ``len(list)`` on a list object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyList_GET_SIZE(PyObject *list)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PyList_Size` without error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyList_GetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index)
+
+ Return the object at position *pos* in the list pointed to by *p*. The position
+ must be positive, indexing from the end of the list is not supported. If *pos*
+ is out of bounds, return *NULL* and set an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyList_GET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PyList_GetItem` without error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_SetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)
+
+ Set the item at index *index* in list to *item*. Return ``0`` on success or
+ ``-1`` on failure.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This function "steals" a reference to *item* and discards a reference to an item
+ already in the list at the affected position.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyList_SET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *o)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PyList_SetItem` without error checking. This is normally
+ only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This function "steals" a reference to *item*, and, unlike
+ :cfunc:`PyList_SetItem`, does *not* discard a reference to any item that it
+ being replaced; any reference in *list* at position *i* will be leaked.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_Insert(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)
+
+ Insert the item *item* into list *list* in front of index *index*. Return ``0``
+ if successful; return ``-1`` and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to
+ ``list.insert(index, item)``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_Append(PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
+
+ Append the object *item* at the end of list *list*. Return ``0`` if successful;
+ return ``-1`` and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to
+ ``list.append(item)``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyList_GetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
+
+ Return a list of the objects in *list* containing the objects *between* *low*
+ and *high*. Return *NULL* and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to
+ ``list[low:high]``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_SetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
+
+ Set the slice of *list* between *low* and *high* to the contents of *itemlist*.
+ Analogous to ``list[low:high] = itemlist``. The *itemlist* may be *NULL*,
+ indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion). Return ``0`` on
+ success, ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_Sort(PyObject *list)
+
+ Sort the items of *list* in place. Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on failure.
+ This is equivalent to ``list.sort()``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyList_Reverse(PyObject *list)
+
+ Reverse the items of *list* in place. Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on
+ failure. This is the equivalent of ``list.reverse()``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyList_AsTuple(PyObject *list)
+
+ .. index:: builtin: tuple
+
+ Return a new tuple object containing the contents of *list*; equivalent to
+ ``tuple(list)``.
+
+
+.. _mapobjects:
+
+Mapping Objects
+===============
+
+.. index:: object: mapping
+
+
+.. _dictobjects:
+
+Dictionary Objects
+------------------
+
+.. index:: object: dictionary
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyDictObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python dictionary object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyDict_Type
+
+ .. index::
+ single: DictType (in module types)
+ single: DictionaryType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python dictionary type.
+ This is exposed to Python programs as ``dict`` and ``types.DictType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of the dict
+ type.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a dict object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
+ dict type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_New()
+
+ Return a new empty dictionary, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDictProxy_New(PyObject *dict)
+
+ Return a proxy object for a mapping which enforces read-only behavior. This is
+ normally used to create a proxy to prevent modification of the dictionary for
+ non-dynamic class types.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyDict_Clear(PyObject *p)
+
+ Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_Contains(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+ Determine if dictionary *p* contains *key*. If an item in *p* is matches *key*,
+ return ``1``, otherwise return ``0``. On error, return ``-1``. This is
+ equivalent to the Python expression ``key in p``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_Copy(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as *p*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 1.6
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_SetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *val)
+
+ Insert *value* into the dictionary *p* with a key of *key*. *key* must be
+ hashable; if it isn't, :exc:`TypeError` will be raised. Return ``0`` on success
+ or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_SetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject *val)
+
+ .. index:: single: PyString_FromString()
+
+ Insert *value* into the dictionary *p* using *key* as a key. *key* should be a
+ :ctype:`char\*`. The key object is created using ``PyString_FromString(key)``.
+ Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_DelItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+ Remove the entry in dictionary *p* with key *key*. *key* must be hashable; if it
+ isn't, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on
+ failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_DelItemString(PyObject *p, char *key)
+
+ Remove the entry in dictionary *p* which has a key specified by the string
+ *key*. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_GetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+ Return the object from dictionary *p* which has a key *key*. Return *NULL* if
+ the key *key* is not present, but *without* setting an exception.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_GetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key)
+
+ This is the same as :cfunc:`PyDict_GetItem`, but *key* is specified as a
+ :ctype:`char\*`, rather than a :ctype:`PyObject\*`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_Items(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return a :ctype:`PyListObject` containing all the items from the dictionary, as
+ in the dictionary method :meth:`dict.items`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_Keys(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return a :ctype:`PyListObject` containing all the keys from the dictionary, as
+ in the dictionary method :meth:`dict.keys`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDict_Values(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return a :ctype:`PyListObject` containing all the values from the dictionary
+ *p*, as in the dictionary method :meth:`dict.values`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: Py_ssize_t PyDict_Size(PyObject *p)
+
+ .. index:: builtin: len
+
+ Return the number of items in the dictionary. This is equivalent to ``len(p)``
+ on a dictionary.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_Next(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
+
+ Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary *p*. The :ctype:`int`
+ referred to by *ppos* must be initialized to ``0`` prior to the first call to
+ this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for each pair in
+ the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been reported. The parameters
+ *pkey* and *pvalue* should either point to :ctype:`PyObject\*` variables that
+ will be filled in with each key and value, respectively, or may be *NULL*. Any
+ references returned through them are borrowed. *ppos* should not be altered
+ during iteration. Its value represents offsets within the internal dictionary
+ structure, and since the structure is sparse, the offsets are not consecutive.
+
+ For example::
+
+ PyObject *key, *value;
+ Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
+
+ while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+ /* do something interesting with the values... */
+ ...
+ }
+
+ The dictionary *p* should not be mutated during iteration. It is safe (since
+ Python 2.1) to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the dictionary,
+ but only so long as the set of keys does not change. For example::
+
+ PyObject *key, *value;
+ Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
+
+ while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+ int i = PyInt_AS_LONG(value) + 1;
+ PyObject *o = PyInt_FromLong(i);
+ if (o == NULL)
+ return -1;
+ if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
+ Py_DECREF(o);
+ return -1;
+ }
+ Py_DECREF(o);
+ }
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_Merge(PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
+
+ Iterate over mapping object *b* adding key-value pairs to dictionary *a*. *b*
+ may be a dictionary, or any object supporting :func:`PyMapping_Keys` and
+ :func:`PyObject_GetItem`. If *override* is true, existing pairs in *a* will be
+ replaced if a matching key is found in *b*, otherwise pairs will only be added
+ if there is not a matching key in *a*. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if an
+ exception was raised.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_Update(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
+
+ This is the same as ``PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)`` in C, or ``a.update(b)`` in
+ Python. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if an exception was raised.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int override)
+
+ Update or merge into dictionary *a*, from the key-value pairs in *seq2*. *seq2*
+ must be an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed as
+ key-value pairs. In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if *override* is
+ true, else the first wins. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if an exception was
+ raised. Equivalent Python (except for the return value)::
+
+ def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
+ for key, value in seq2:
+ if override or key not in a:
+ a[key] = value
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. _otherobjects:
+
+Other Objects
+=============
+
+
+.. _classobjects:
+
+Class Objects
+-------------
+
+.. index:: object: class
+
+Note that the class objects described here represent old-style classes, which
+will go away in Python 3. When creating new types for extension modules, you
+will want to work with type objects (section :ref:`typeobjects`).
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyClassObject
+
+ The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in classes.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyObject* PyClass_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: ClassType (in module types)
+
+ This is the type object for class objects; it is the same object as
+ ``types.ClassType`` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyClass_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is a class object, including instances of types
+ derived from the standard class object. Return false in all other cases.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyClass_IsSubclass(PyObject *klass, PyObject *base)
+
+ Return true if *klass* is a subclass of *base*. Return false in all other cases.
+
+
+.. _fileobjects:
+
+File Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: file
+
+Python's built-in file objects are implemented entirely on the :ctype:`FILE\*`
+support from the C standard library. This is an implementation detail and may
+change in future releases of Python.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyFileObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents a Python file object.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyFile_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: FileType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python file type. This is
+ exposed to Python programs as ``file`` and ``types.FileType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyFileObject` or a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyFileObject`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyFileObject`, but not a subtype of
+ :ctype:`PyFileObject`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFile_FromString(char *filename, char *mode)
+
+ .. index:: single: fopen()
+
+ On success, return a new file object that is opened on the file given by
+ *filename*, with a file mode given by *mode*, where *mode* has the same
+ semantics as the standard C routine :cfunc:`fopen`. On failure, return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFile_FromFile(FILE *fp, char *name, char *mode, int (*close)(FILE*))
+
+ Create a new :ctype:`PyFileObject` from the already-open standard C file
+ pointer, *fp*. The function *close* will be called when the file should be
+ closed. Return *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: FILE* PyFile_AsFile(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return the file object associated with *p* as a :ctype:`FILE\*`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFile_GetLine(PyObject *p, int n)
+
+ .. index:: single: EOFError (built-in exception)
+
+ Equivalent to ``p.readline([n])``, this function reads one line from the
+ object *p*. *p* may be a file object or any object with a :meth:`readline`
+ method. If *n* is ``0``, exactly one line is read, regardless of the length of
+ the line. If *n* is greater than ``0``, no more than *n* bytes will be read
+ from the file; a partial line can be returned. In both cases, an empty string
+ is returned if the end of the file is reached immediately. If *n* is less than
+ ``0``, however, one line is read regardless of length, but :exc:`EOFError` is
+ raised if the end of the file is reached immediately.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFile_Name(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return the name of the file specified by *p* as a string object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyFile_SetBufSize(PyFileObject *p, int n)
+
+ .. index:: single: setvbuf()
+
+ Available on systems with :cfunc:`setvbuf` only. This should only be called
+ immediately after file object creation.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_Encoding(PyFileObject *p, char *enc)
+
+ Set the file's encoding for Unicode output to *enc*. Return 1 on success and 0
+ on failure.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_SoftSpace(PyObject *p, int newflag)
+
+ .. index:: single: softspace (file attribute)
+
+ This function exists for internal use by the interpreter. Set the
+ :attr:`softspace` attribute of *p* to *newflag* and return the previous value.
+ *p* does not have to be a file object for this function to work properly; any
+ object is supported (thought its only interesting if the :attr:`softspace`
+ attribute can be set). This function clears any errors, and will return ``0``
+ as the previous value if the attribute either does not exist or if there were
+ errors in retrieving it. There is no way to detect errors from this function,
+ but doing so should not be needed.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_WriteObject(PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int flags)
+
+ .. index:: single: Py_PRINT_RAW
+
+ Write object *obj* to file object *p*. The only supported flag for *flags* is
+ :const:`Py_PRINT_RAW`; if given, the :func:`str` of the object is written
+ instead of the :func:`repr`. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure; the
+ appropriate exception will be set.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFile_WriteString(const char *s, PyObject *p)
+
+ Write string *s* to file object *p*. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on
+ failure; the appropriate exception will be set.
+
+
+.. _instanceobjects:
+
+Instance Objects
+----------------
+
+.. index:: object: instance
+
+There are very few functions specific to instance objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyInstance_Type
+
+ Type object for class instances.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyInstance_Check(PyObject *obj)
+
+ Return true if *obj* is an instance.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyInstance_New(PyObject *class, PyObject *arg, PyObject *kw)
+
+ Create a new instance of a specific class. The parameters *arg* and *kw* are
+ used as the positional and keyword parameters to the object's constructor.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyInstance_NewRaw(PyObject *class, PyObject *dict)
+
+ Create a new instance of a specific class without calling its constructor.
+ *class* is the class of new object. The *dict* parameter will be used as the
+ object's :attr:`__dict__`; if *NULL*, a new dictionary will be created for the
+ instance.
+
+
+.. _function-objects:
+
+Function Objects
+----------------
+
+.. index:: object: function
+
+There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyFunctionObject
+
+ The C structure used for functions.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyFunction_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: MethodType (in module types)
+
+ This is an instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` and represents the Python function
+ type. It is exposed to Python programmers as ``types.FunctionType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFunction_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if *o* is a function object (has type :cdata:`PyFunction_Type`).
+ The parameter must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_New(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals)
+
+ Return a new function object associated with the code object *code*. *globals*
+ must be a dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function.
+
+ The function's docstring, name and *__module__* are retrieved from the code
+ object, the argument defaults and closure are set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetCode(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the code object associated with the function object *op*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetGlobals(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the globals dictionary associated with the function object *op*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetModule(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the *__module__* attribute of the function object *op*. This is normally
+ a string containing the module name, but can be set to any other object by
+ Python code.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetDefaults(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the argument default values of the function object *op*. This can be a
+ tuple of arguments or *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFunction_SetDefaults(PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults)
+
+ Set the argument default values for the function object *op*. *defaults* must be
+ *Py_None* or a tuple.
+
+ Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetClosure(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the closure associated with the function object *op*. This can be *NULL*
+ or a tuple of cell objects.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFunction_SetClosure(PyObject *op, PyObject *closure)
+
+ Set the closure associated with the function object *op*. *closure* must be
+ *Py_None* or a tuple of cell objects.
+
+ Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. _method-objects:
+
+Method Objects
+--------------
+
+.. index:: object: method
+
+There are some useful functions that are useful for working with method objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyMethod_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: MethodType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python method type. This
+ is exposed to Python programs as ``types.MethodType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyMethod_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if *o* is a method object (has type :cdata:`PyMethod_Type`). The
+ parameter must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_New(PyObject *func, PyObject *self, PyObject *class)
+
+ Return a new method object, with *func* being any callable object; this is the
+ function that will be called when the method is called. If this method should
+ be bound to an instance, *self* should be the instance and *class* should be the
+ class of *self*, otherwise *self* should be *NULL* and *class* should be the
+ class which provides the unbound method..
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_Class(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Return the class object from which the method *meth* was created; if this was
+ created from an instance, it will be the class of the instance.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_GET_CLASS(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Macro version of :cfunc:`PyMethod_Class` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_Function(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Return the function object associated with the method *meth*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Macro version of :cfunc:`PyMethod_Function` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_Self(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Return the instance associated with the method *meth* if it is bound, otherwise
+ return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyMethod_GET_SELF(PyObject *meth)
+
+ Macro version of :cfunc:`PyMethod_Self` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. _moduleobjects:
+
+Module Objects
+--------------
+
+.. index:: object: module
+
+There are only a few functions special to module objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyModule_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: ModuleType (in module types)
+
+ This instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python module type. This
+ is exposed to Python programs as ``types.ModuleType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyModule_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a module object, or a subtype of a module object.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.2
+ Allowed subtypes to be accepted.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyModule_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a module object, but not a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyModule_Type`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyModule_New(const char *name)
+
+ .. index::
+ single: __name__ (module attribute)
+ single: __doc__ (module attribute)
+ single: __file__ (module attribute)
+
+ Return a new module object with the :attr:`__name__` attribute set to *name*.
+ Only the module's :attr:`__doc__` and :attr:`__name__` attributes are filled in;
+ the caller is responsible for providing a :attr:`__file__` attribute.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyModule_GetDict(PyObject *module)
+
+ .. index:: single: __dict__ (module attribute)
+
+ Return the dictionary object that implements *module*'s namespace; this object
+ is the same as the :attr:`__dict__` attribute of the module object. This
+ function never fails. It is recommended extensions use other
+ :cfunc:`PyModule_\*` and :cfunc:`PyObject_\*` functions rather than directly
+ manipulate a module's :attr:`__dict__`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: char* PyModule_GetName(PyObject *module)
+
+ .. index::
+ single: __name__ (module attribute)
+ single: SystemError (built-in exception)
+
+ Return *module*'s :attr:`__name__` value. If the module does not provide one,
+ or if it is not a string, :exc:`SystemError` is raised and *NULL* is returned.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: char* PyModule_GetFilename(PyObject *module)
+
+ .. index::
+ single: __file__ (module attribute)
+ single: SystemError (built-in exception)
+
+ Return the name of the file from which *module* was loaded using *module*'s
+ :attr:`__file__` attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a string,
+ raise :exc:`SystemError` and return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyModule_AddObject(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)
+
+ Add an object to *module* as *name*. This is a convenience function which can
+ be used from the module's initialization function. This steals a reference to
+ *value*. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyModule_AddIntConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, long value)
+
+ Add an integer constant to *module* as *name*. This convenience function can be
+ used from the module's initialization function. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on
+ success.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyModule_AddStringConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, const char *value)
+
+ Add a string constant to *module* as *name*. This convenience function can be
+ used from the module's initialization function. The string *value* must be
+ null-terminated. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+
+.. _iterator-objects:
+
+Iterator Objects
+----------------
+
+Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects. The first, a sequence
+iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the :meth:`__getitem__`
+method. The second works with a callable object and a sentinel value, calling
+the callable for each item in the sequence, and ending the iteration when the
+sentinel value is returned.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PySeqIter_Type
+
+ Type object for iterator objects returned by :cfunc:`PySeqIter_New` and the
+ one-argument form of the :func:`iter` built-in function for built-in sequence
+ types.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySeqIter_Check(op)
+
+ Return true if the type of *op* is :cdata:`PySeqIter_Type`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PySeqIter_New(PyObject *seq)
+
+ Return an iterator that works with a general sequence object, *seq*. The
+ iteration ends when the sequence raises :exc:`IndexError` for the subscripting
+ operation.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyCallIter_Type
+
+ Type object for iterator objects returned by :cfunc:`PyCallIter_New` and the
+ two-argument form of the :func:`iter` built-in function.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyCallIter_Check(op)
+
+ Return true if the type of *op* is :cdata:`PyCallIter_Type`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCallIter_New(PyObject *callable, PyObject *sentinel)
+
+ Return a new iterator. The first parameter, *callable*, can be any Python
+ callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to it should
+ return the next item in the iteration. When *callable* returns a value equal to
+ *sentinel*, the iteration will be terminated.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. _descriptor-objects:
+
+Descriptor Objects
+------------------
+
+"Descriptors" are objects that describe some attribute of an object. They are
+found in the dictionary of type objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyProperty_Type
+
+ The type object for the built-in descriptor types.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewGetSet(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMember(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMethod(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewWrapper(PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewClassMethod(PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDescr_IsData(PyObject *descr)
+
+ Return true if the descriptor objects *descr* describes a data attribute, or
+ false if it describes a method. *descr* must be a descriptor object; there is
+ no error checking.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyWrapper_New(PyObject *, PyObject *)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. _slice-objects:
+
+Slice Objects
+-------------
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PySlice_Type
+
+ .. index:: single: SliceType (in module types)
+
+ The type object for slice objects. This is the same as ``slice`` and
+ ``types.SliceType``.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySlice_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is a slice object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PySlice_New(PyObject *start, PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)
+
+ Return a new slice object with the given values. The *start*, *stop*, and
+ *step* parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of the
+ same names. Any of the values may be *NULL*, in which case the ``None`` will be
+ used for the corresponding attribute. Return *NULL* if the new object could not
+ be allocated.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySlice_GetIndices(PySliceObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
+
+ Retrieve the start, stop and step indices from the slice object *slice*,
+ assuming a sequence of length *length*. Treats indices greater than *length* as
+ errors.
+
+ Returns 0 on success and -1 on error with no exception set (unless one of the
+ indices was not :const:`None` and failed to be converted to an integer, in which
+ case -1 is returned with an exception set).
+
+ You probably do not want to use this function. If you want to use slice objects
+ in versions of Python prior to 2.3, you would probably do well to incorporate
+ the source of :cfunc:`PySlice_GetIndicesEx`, suitably renamed, in the source of
+ your extension.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx(PySliceObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step, Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
+
+ Usable replacement for :cfunc:`PySlice_GetIndices`. Retrieve the start, stop,
+ and step indices from the slice object *slice* assuming a sequence of length
+ *length*, and store the length of the slice in *slicelength*. Out of bounds
+ indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of normal slices.
+
+ Returns 0 on success and -1 on error with exception set.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.3
+
+
+.. _weakrefobjects:
+
+Weak Reference Objects
+----------------------
+
+Python supports *weak references* as first-class objects. There are two
+specific object types which directly implement weak references. The first is a
+simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for the original object
+as much as it can.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyWeakref_Check(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is either a reference or proxy object.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyWeakref_CheckRef(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is a reference object.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is a proxy object.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyWeakref_NewRef(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)
+
+ Return a weak reference object for the object *ob*. This will always return
+ a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing
+ reference object may be returned. The second parameter, *callback*, can be a
+ callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage collected; it
+ should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
+ itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or *NULL*. If *ob* is not a
+ weakly-referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable, ``None``, or
+ *NULL*, this will return *NULL* and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyWeakref_NewProxy(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)
+
+ Return a weak reference proxy object for the object *ob*. This will always
+ return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an
+ existing proxy object may be returned. The second parameter, *callback*, can
+ be a callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage
+ collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak
+ reference object itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or *NULL*. If *ob*
+ is not a weakly-referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable,
+ ``None``, or *NULL*, this will return *NULL* and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyWeakref_GetObject(PyObject *ref)
+
+ Return the referenced object from a weak reference, *ref*. If the referent is
+ no longer live, returns ``None``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(PyObject *ref)
+
+ Similar to :cfunc:`PyWeakref_GetObject`, but implemented as a macro that does no
+ error checking.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+
+.. _cobjects:
+
+CObjects
+--------
+
+.. index:: object: CObject
+
+Refer to *Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter*, section 1.12,
+"Providing a C API for an Extension Module," for more information on using these
+objects.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyCObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` represents an opaque value, useful for C
+ extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as a :ctype:`void\*`
+ pointer) through Python code to other C code. It is often used to make a C
+ function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the
+ regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically
+ loaded modules.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyCObject_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if its argument is a :ctype:`PyCObject`.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCObject_FromVoidPtr(void* cobj, void (*destr)(void *))
+
+ Create a :ctype:`PyCObject` from the ``void *`` *cobj*. The *destr* function
+ will be called when the object is reclaimed, unless it is *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCObject_FromVoidPtrAndDesc(void* cobj, void* desc, void (*destr)(void *, void *))
+
+ Create a :ctype:`PyCObject` from the :ctype:`void \*` *cobj*. The *destr*
+ function will be called when the object is reclaimed. The *desc* argument can
+ be used to pass extra callback data for the destructor function.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void* PyCObject_AsVoidPtr(PyObject* self)
+
+ Return the object :ctype:`void \*` that the :ctype:`PyCObject` *self* was
+ created with.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void* PyCObject_GetDesc(PyObject* self)
+
+ Return the description :ctype:`void \*` that the :ctype:`PyCObject` *self* was
+ created with.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyCObject_SetVoidPtr(PyObject* self, void* cobj)
+
+ Set the void pointer inside *self* to *cobj*. The :ctype:`PyCObject` must not
+ have an associated destructor. Return true on success, false on failure.
+
+
+.. _cell-objects:
+
+Cell Objects
+------------
+
+"Cell" objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes.
+For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local
+variables of each stack frame that references the value contains a reference to
+the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable. When the value is
+accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object
+itself. This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the
+generated byte-code; these are not automatically de-referenced when accessed.
+Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyCellObject
+
+ The C structure used for cell objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyCell_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to cell objects.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyCell_Check(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is a cell object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCell_New(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Create and return a new cell object containing the value *ob*. The parameter may
+ be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCell_Get(PyObject *cell)
+
+ Return the contents of the cell *cell*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyCell_GET(PyObject *cell)
+
+ Return the contents of the cell *cell*, but without checking that *cell* is
+ non-*NULL* and a cell object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyCell_Set(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)
+
+ Set the contents of the cell object *cell* to *value*. This releases the
+ reference to any current content of the cell. *value* may be *NULL*. *cell*
+ must be non-*NULL*; if it is not a cell object, ``-1`` will be returned. On
+ success, ``0`` will be returned.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: void PyCell_SET(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)
+
+ Sets the value of the cell object *cell* to *value*. No reference counts are
+ adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; *cell* must be non-*NULL* and must
+ be a cell object.
+
+
+.. _gen-objects:
+
+Generator Objects
+-----------------
+
+Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators. They
+are normally created by iterating over a function that yields values, rather
+than explicitly calling :cfunc:`PyGen_New`.
+
+
+.. ctype:: PyGenObject
+
+ The C structure used for generator objects.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyGen_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to generator objects
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyGen_Check(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is a generator object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyGen_CheckExact(ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob*'s type is *PyGen_Type* is a generator object; *ob* must not
+ be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame)
+
+ Create and return a new generator object based on the *frame* object. A
+ reference to *frame* is stolen by this function. The parameter must not be
+ *NULL*.
+
+
+.. _datetimeobjects:
+
+DateTime Objects
+----------------
+
+Various date and time objects are supplied by the :mod:`datetime` module.
+Before using any of these functions, the header file :file:`datetime.h` must be
+included in your source (note that this is not included by :file:`Python.h`),
+and the macro :cfunc:`PyDateTime_IMPORT` must be invoked. The macro puts a
+pointer to a C structure into a static variable, ``PyDateTimeAPI``, that is
+used by the following macros.
+
+Type-check macros:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDate_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateType` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateType`. *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDate_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateType`. *ob* must not be
+ *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType`. *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType`. *ob* must not
+ be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTime_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_TimeType` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyDateTime_TimeType`. *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_TimeType`. *ob* must not be
+ *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDelta_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DeltaType` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyDateTime_DeltaType`. *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDelta_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_DeltaType`. *ob* must not be
+ *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTZInfo_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType` or a subtype of
+ :cdata:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType`. *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return true if *ob* is of type :cdata:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType`. *ob* must not be
+ *NULL*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+Macros to create objects:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDate_FromDate(int year, int month, int day)
+
+ Return a ``datetime.date`` object with the specified year, month and day.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime(int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)
+
+ Return a ``datetime.datetime`` object with the specified year, month, day, hour,
+ minute, second and microsecond.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyTime_FromTime(int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)
+
+ Return a ``datetime.time`` object with the specified hour, minute, second and
+ microsecond.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDelta_FromDSU(int days, int seconds, int useconds)
+
+ Return a ``datetime.timedelta`` object representing the given number of days,
+ seconds and microseconds. Normalization is performed so that the resulting
+ number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges documented for
+ ``datetime.timedelta`` objects.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+Macros to extract fields from date objects. The argument must be an instance of
+:cdata:`PyDateTime_Date`, including subclasses (such as
+:cdata:`PyDateTime_DateTime`). The argument must not be *NULL*, and the type is
+not checked:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+ Return the year, as a positive int.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+ Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+ Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+Macros to extract fields from datetime objects. The argument must be an
+instance of :cdata:`PyDateTime_DateTime`, including subclasses. The argument
+must not be *NULL*, and the type is not checked:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+ Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+ Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+ Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+ Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+Macros to extract fields from time objects. The argument must be an instance of
+:cdata:`PyDateTime_Time`, including subclasses. The argument must not be *NULL*,
+and the type is not checked:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+ Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+ Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+ Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+ Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
+
+ Create and return a new ``datetime.datetime`` object given an argument tuple
+ suitable for passing to ``datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp()``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyDate_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
+
+ Create and return a new ``datetime.date`` object given an argument tuple
+ suitable for passing to ``datetime.date.fromtimestamp()``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.4
+
+
+.. _setobjects:
+
+Set Objects
+-----------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond D. Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+
+
+.. index::
+ object: set
+ object: frozenset
+
+.. versionadded:: 2.5
+
+This section details the public API for :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset`
+objects. Any functionality not listed below is best accessed using the either
+the abstract object protocol (including :cfunc:`PyObject_CallMethod`,
+:cfunc:`PyObject_RichCompareBool`, :cfunc:`PyObject_Hash`,
+:cfunc:`PyObject_Repr`, :cfunc:`PyObject_IsTrue`, :cfunc:`PyObject_Print`, and
+:cfunc:`PyObject_GetIter`) or the abstract number protocol (including
+:cfunc:`PyNumber_And`, :cfunc:`PyNumber_Subtract`, :cfunc:`PyNumber_Or`,
+:cfunc:`PyNumber_Xor`, :cfunc:`PyNumber_InPlaceAnd`,
+:cfunc:`PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract`, :cfunc:`PyNumber_InPlaceOr`, and
+:cfunc:`PyNumber_InPlaceXor`).
+
+
+.. ctype:: PySetObject
+
+ This subtype of :ctype:`PyObject` is used to hold the internal data for both
+ :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` objects. It is like a :ctype:`PyDictObject`
+ in that it is a fixed size for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will
+ point to a separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
+ sets (much like list storage). None of the fields of this structure should be
+ considered public and are subject to change. All access should be done through
+ the documented API rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PySet_Type
+
+ This is an instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` representing the Python
+ :class:`set` type.
+
+
+.. cvar:: PyTypeObject PyFrozenSet_Type
+
+ This is an instance of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` representing the Python
+ :class:`frozenset` type.
+
+The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object. Likewise,
+the constructor functions work with any iterable Python object.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyAnySet_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a :class:`set` object, a :class:`frozenset` object, or an
+ instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyAnySet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a :class:`set` object or a :class:`frozenset` object but
+ not an instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+ Return true if *p* is a :class:`frozenset` object but not an instance of a
+ subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PySet_New(PyObject *iterable)
+
+ Return a new :class:`set` containing objects returned by the *iterable*. The
+ *iterable* may be *NULL* to create a new empty set. Return the new set on
+ success or *NULL* on failure. Raise :exc:`TypeError` if *iterable* is not
+ actually iterable. The constructor is also useful for copying a set
+ (``c=set(s)``).
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyFrozenSet_New(PyObject *iterable)
+
+ Return a new :class:`frozenset` containing objects returned by the *iterable*.
+ The *iterable* may be *NULL* to create a new empty frozenset. Return the new
+ set on success or *NULL* on failure. Raise :exc:`TypeError` if *iterable* is
+ not actually iterable.
+
+The following functions and macros are available for instances of :class:`set`
+or :class:`frozenset` or instances of their subtypes.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_Size(PyObject *anyset)
+
+ .. index:: builtin: len
+
+ Return the length of a :class:`set` or :class:`frozenset` object. Equivalent to
+ ``len(anyset)``. Raises a :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *anyset* is not a
+ :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`, or an instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_GET_SIZE(PyObject *anyset)
+
+ Macro form of :cfunc:`PySet_Size` without error checking.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_Contains(PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
+
+ Return 1 if found, 0 if not found, and -1 if an error is encountered. Unlike
+ the Python :meth:`__contains__` method, this function does not automatically
+ convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets. Raise a :exc:`TypeError` if
+ the *key* is unhashable. Raise :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *anyset* is not a
+ :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`, or an instance of a subtype.
+
+The following functions are available for instances of :class:`set` or its
+subtypes but not for instances of :class:`frozenset` or its subtypes.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_Add(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
+
+ Add *key* to a :class:`set` instance. Does not apply to :class:`frozenset`
+ instances. Return 0 on success or -1 on failure. Raise a :exc:`TypeError` if
+ the *key* is unhashable. Raise a :exc:`MemoryError` if there is no room to grow.
+ Raise a :exc:`SystemError` if *set* is an not an instance of :class:`set` or its
+ subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_Discard(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
+
+ Return 1 if found and removed, 0 if not found (no action taken), and -1 if an
+ error is encountered. Does not raise :exc:`KeyError` for missing keys. Raise a
+ :exc:`TypeError` if the *key* is unhashable. Unlike the Python :meth:`discard`
+ method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into
+ temporary frozensets. Raise :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *set* is an not an
+ instance of :class:`set` or its subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PySet_Pop(PyObject *set)
+
+ Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the *set*, and removes the
+ object from the *set*. Return *NULL* on failure. Raise :exc:`KeyError` if the
+ set is empty. Raise a :exc:`SystemError` if *set* is an not an instance of
+ :class:`set` or its subtype.
+
+
+.. cfunction:: int PySet_Clear(PyObject *set)
+
+ Empty an existing set of all elements.
+