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+% Format this file with latex.
+
+%\documentstyle[palatino,11pt,myformat]{article}
+\documentstyle[11pt,myformat]{article}
+
+\sloppy
+
+\title{\bf
+ Python Library Reference \\
+ (DRAFT)
+}
+
+\author{
+ Guido van Rossum \\
+ Dept. CST, CWI, Kruislaan 413 \\
+ 1098 SJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands \\
+ E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
+}
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\pagenumbering{roman}
+
+\maketitle
+
+\begin{abstract}
+
+\noindent
+This document describes the built-in types, exceptions and functions and
+the standard modules that come with the {\Python} system.
+It assumes basic knowledge about the {\Python} language.
+For an informal introduction to the language, see the Tutorial document.
+The Language Reference document (XXX not yet existing)
+gives a more formal reference to the language.
+
+\end{abstract}
+
+\pagebreak
+
+\tableofcontents
+
+\pagebreak
+
+\pagenumbering{arabic}
+
+\section{Introduction}
+
+The {\Python} library consists of three parts, with different levels of
+integration with the interpreter.
+Closest to the interpreter are built-in types, exceptions and functions.
+Next are built-in modules, which are written in C and linked statically
+with the interpreter.
+Finally there are standard modules that are implemented entirely in
+{\Python}, but are always available.
+For efficiency, some standard modules may become built-in modules in
+future versions of the interpreter.
+
+\section{Built-in Types, Exceptions and Functions}
+
+Names for built-in exceptions and functions are found in a separate
+read-only symbol table which cannot be modified.
+This table is searched last, so local and global user-defined names can
+override built-in names.
+Built-in types have no names but are created by syntactic constructs
+(such as constants) or built-in functions.
+They are described together here for easy reference.%
+\footnote{
+The descriptions sorely lack explanations of the exceptions that
+may be raised---this will be fixed in a future version of this
+document.
+}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Types}
+
+The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the
+interpreter.
+\subsubsection{Numeric Types}
+
+There are two numeric types: integers and floating point numbers.
+Integers are implemented using {\tt long} in C, so they have at least 32
+bits of precision.
+Floating point numbers are implemented using {\tt double} in C.
+All bets on precision are off.
+Numbers are created by numeric constants or as the result of built-in
+functions and operators.
+
+Numeric types support the following operations:
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes \\
+\hline
+{\tt abs}({\em x}) & absolute value of {\em x} & \\
+{\tt int}({\em x}) & {\em x} converted to integer & (1) \\
+{\tt float}({\em x}) & {\em x} converted to floating point & \\
+{\tt -}{\em x} & {\em x} negated & \\
+{\tt +}{\em x} & {\em x} unchanged & \\
+{\em x}{\tt +}{\em y} & sum of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt -}{\em y} & difference of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt *}{\em y} & product of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt /}{\em y} & quotient of {\em x} and {\em y} & (2) \\
+{\em x}{\tt \%}{\em y} & remainder of {\em x}{\tt /}{\em y} & (3) \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+This may round or truncate as in C; see functions {\tt floor} and
+{\tt ceil} in module {\tt math}.
+\item[(2)]
+Integer division is defined as in C: the result is an integer; with
+positive operands, it truncates towards zero; with a negative operand,
+the result is unspecified.
+\item[(3)]
+Only defined for integers.
+\end{description}
+
+Mixed arithmetic is not supported; both operands must have the same type.
+Mixed comparisons return the wrong result (floats always compare smaller
+than integers).%
+\footnote{
+These restrictions are bugs in the language definitions and will be
+fixed in the future.
+}
+\subsubsection{Sequence Types}
+
+There are three sequence types: strings, lists and tuples.
+Strings constants are written in single quotes: {\tt 'xyzzy'}.
+Lists are constructed with square brackets: {\tt [a,~b,~c]}.
+Tuples are constructed by the comma operator or with an empty set of
+parentheses: {\tt a,~b,~c} or {\tt ()}.
+
+Sequence types support the following operations ({\em s} and {\em t} are
+sequences of the same type; {\em n}, {\em i} and {\em j} are integers):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes \\
+\hline
+{\tt len}({\em s}) & length of {\em s} & \\
+{\tt min}({\em s}) & smallest item of {\em s} & \\
+{\tt max}({\em s}) & largest item of {\em s} & \\
+{\em x} {\tt in} {\em s} &
+ true if an item of {\em s} is equal to {\em x} & \\
+{\em x} {\tt not} {\tt in} {\em s} &
+ false if an item of {\em s} is equal to {\em x} & \\
+{\em s}{\tt +}{\em t} & the concatenation of {\em s} and {\em t} & \\
+{\em s}{\tt *}{\em n}, {\em n}*{\em s} &
+ {\em n} copies of {\em s} concatenated & (1) \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}] & {\em i}'th item of {\em s} & \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] &
+ slice of {\em s} from {\em i} to {\em j} & (2) \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+Sequence repetition is only supported for strings.
+\item[(2)]
+The slice of $s$ from $i$ to $j$ is defined as the sequence
+of items with index $k$ such that $i \leq k < j$.
+Special rules apply for negative and omitted indices; see the Tutorial
+or the Reference Manual.
+\end{description}
+
+\paragraph{Mutable Sequence Types.}
+
+List objects support additional operations that allow in-place
+modification of the object.
+These operations would be supported by other mutable sequence types
+(when added to the language) as well.
+Strings and tuples are immutable sequence types and such objects cannot
+be modified once created.
+The following operations are defined on mutable sequence types (where
+{\em x} is an arbitrary object):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result \\
+\hline
+{\em s}[{\em i}] = {\em x} &
+ item {\em i} of {\em s} is replaced by {\em x} \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] = {\em t} &
+ slice of {\em s} from {\em i} to {\em j} is replaced by {\em t} \\
+{\tt del} {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] &
+ same as {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] = [] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt append}({\em x}) &
+ same as {\em s}[{\tt len}({\em x}):{\tt len}({\em x})] = [{\em x}] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt insert}({\em i}, {\em x}) &
+ same as {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em i}] = [{\em x}] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt sort}() &
+ the items of {\em s} are permuted to satisfy \\
+ &
+ $s[i] \leq s[j]$ for $i < j$\\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\subsubsection{Mapping Types}
+
+A
+{\em mapping}
+object maps values of one type (the key type) to arbitrary objects.
+Mappings are mutable objects.
+There is currently only one mapping type, the
+{\em dictionary}.
+A dictionary's keys are strings.
+An empty dictionary is created by the expression \verb"{}".
+An extension of this notation is used to display dictionaries when
+written (see the example below).
+
+The following operations are defined on mappings (where {\em a} is a
+mapping, {\em k} is a key and {\em x} is an arbitrary object):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes\\
+\hline
+{\tt len}({\em a}) & the number of elements in {\em a} & \\
+{\em a}[{\em k}] & the item of {\em a} with key {\em k} & \\
+{\em a}[{\em k}] = {\em x} & set {\em a}[{\em k}] to {\em x} & \\
+{\tt del} {\em a}[{\em k}] & remove {\em a}[{\em k}] from {\em a} & \\
+{\em a}.{\tt keys}() & a copy of {\em a}'s list of keys & (1) \\
+{\em a}.{\tt has\_key}({\em k}) & true if {\em a} has a key {\em k} & \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+Keys are listed in random order.
+\end{description}
+
+A small example using a dictionary:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> tel = {}
+>>> tel['jack'] = 4098
+>>> tel['sape'] = 4139
+>>> tel['guido'] = 4127
+>>> tel['jack']
+4098
+>>> tel
+{'sape': 4139; 'guido': 4127; 'jack': 4098}
+>>> del tel['sape']
+>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
+>>> tel
+{'guido': 4127; 'irv': 4127; 'jack': 4098}
+>>> tel.keys()
+['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
+>>> tel.has_key('guido')
+1
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\subsubsection{Other Built-in Types}
+
+The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects.
+Most of these support only one or two operations.
+
+\paragraph{Modules.}
+
+The only operation on a module is member acces: {\em m}{\tt .}{\em name},
+where {\em m} is a module and {\em name} accesses a name defined in
+{\em m}'s symbol table.
+Module members can be assigned to.
+
+\paragraph{Classes and Class Objects.}
+
+XXX Classes will be explained at length in a later version of this
+document.
+
+\paragraph{Functions.}
+
+Function objects are created by function definitions.
+The only operation on a function object is to call it:
+{\em func}({\em optional-arguments}).
+
+Built-in functions have a different type than user-defined functions,
+but they support the same operation.
+
+\paragraph{Methods.}
+
+Methods are functions that are called using the member acces notation.
+There are two flavors: built-in methods (such as {\tt append()} on
+lists) and class member methods.
+Built-in methods are described with the types that support them.
+XXX Class member methods will be described in a later version of this
+document.
+
+\paragraph{Type Objects.}
+
+Type objects represent the various object types.
+An object's type is accessed by the built-in function
+{\tt type()}.
+There are no operations on type objects.
+
+\paragraph{The Null Object.}
+
+This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a
+value.
+It supports no operations.
+There is exactly one null object.
+
+\paragraph{File Objects.}
+
+File objects are implemented using C's
+{\em stdio}
+package and can be created with the built-in function
+{\tt open()}.
+They have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt close()}]
+Closes the file.
+A closed file cannot be read or written anymore.
+\item[{\tt read(size)}]
+Reads at most
+{\tt size}
+bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF).
+The bytes are returned as a string object.
+An empty string is returned when EOF is hit immediately.
+(For certain files, like ttys, it makes sense to continue reading after
+an EOF is hit.)
+\item[{\tt readline(size)}]
+Reads a line of at most
+{\tt size}
+bytes from the file.
+A trailing newline character, if present, is kept in the string.
+The size is optional and defaults to a large number (but not infinity).
+EOF is reported as by
+{\tt read().}
+\item[{\tt write(str)}]
+Writes a string to the file.
+Returns no value.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Exceptions}
+
+The following exceptions can be generated by the interpreter or
+built-in functions.
+Except where mentioned, they have a string argument (also known as the
+`associated value' of an exception) indicating the detailed cause of the
+error.
+The strings listed with the exception names are their values when used
+in an expression or printed.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt EOFError = 'end-of-file read'} (no argument)]
+%.br
+Raised when a built-in function ({\tt input()} or {\tt raw\_input()})
+hits an end-of-file condition (EOF) without reading any data.
+(N.B.: the {\tt read()} and {\tt readline()} methods of file objects
+return an empty string when they hit EOF.)
+\item[{\tt KeyboardInterrupt = 'end-of-file read'} (no argument)]
+%.br
+Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (normally Control-C or DEL).
+During execution, a check for interrupts is made regularly.
+Interrupts typed when a built-in function ({\tt input()} or
+{\tt raw\_input()}) is waiting for input also raise this exception.
+\item[{\tt MemoryError = 'out of memory'}]
+%.br
+Raised when an operation runs out of memory but the situation
+may still be rescued (by deleting some objects).
+\item[{\tt NameError = 'undefined name'}]
+%.br
+Raised when a name is not found.
+This applies to unqualified names, module names (on {\tt import}),
+module members and object methods.
+The string argument is the name that could not be found.
+\item[{\tt RuntimeError = 'run-time error'}]
+%.br
+Raised for a variety of reasons, e.g., division by zero or index out of
+range.
+\item[{\tt SystemError = 'system error'}]
+%.br
+Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation
+does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope.
+\item[{\tt TypeError = 'type error'}]
+%.br
+Raised when an operation or built-in function is applied to an object of
+inappropriate type.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Functions}
+
+The {\Python} interpreter has a small number of functions built into it that
+are always available.
+They are listed here in alphabetical order.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt abs(x)}]
+Returns the absolute value of a number.
+The argument may be an integer or floating point number.
+\item[{\tt dir()}]
+Without arguments, this function returns the list of names in the
+current local symbol table, sorted alphabetically.
+With a module object as argument, it returns the sorted list of names in
+that module's global symbol table.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import sys
+>>> dir()
+['sys']
+>>> dir(sys)
+['argv', 'exit', 'modules', 'path', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout']
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt divmod(a, b)}]
+%.br
+Takes two integers as arguments and returns a pair of integers
+consisting of their quotient and remainder.
+For
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+q, r = divmod(a, b)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+the invariants are:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+a = q*b + r
+abs(r) < abs(b)
+r has the same sign as b
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> divmod(100, 7)
+(14, 2)
+>>> divmod(-100, 7)
+(-15, 5)
+>>> divmod(100, -7)
+(-15, -5)
+>>> divmod(-100, -7)
+(14, -2)
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt eval(s)}]
+Takes a string as argument and parses and evaluates it as a {\Python}
+expression.
+The expression is executed using the current local and global symbol
+tables.
+Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> x = 1
+>>> eval('x+1')
+2
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt exec(s)}]
+Takes a string as argument and parses and evaluates it as a sequence of
+{\Python} statements.
+The string should end with a newline (\verb"'\n'").
+The statement is executed using the current local and global symbol
+tables.
+Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> x = 1
+>>> exec('x = x+1\n')
+>>> x
+2
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt float(x)}]
+Converts a number to floating point.
+The argument may be an integer or floating point number.
+\item[{\tt input(s)}]
+Equivalent to
+{\tt eval(raw\_input(s))}.
+As for
+{\tt raw\_input()},
+the argument is optional.
+\item[{\tt len(s)}]
+Returns the length (the number of items) of an object.
+The argument may be a sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping
+(dictionary).
+\item[{\tt max(s)}]
+Returns the largest item of a non-empty sequence (string, tuple or list).
+\item[{\tt min(s)}]
+Returns the smallest item of a non-empty sequence (string, tuple or list).
+\item[{\tt open(name, mode)}]
+%.br
+Returns a file object (described earlier under Built-in Types).
+The string arguments are the same as for stdio's
+{\tt fopen()}:
+{\tt 'r'}
+opens the file for reading,
+{\tt 'w'}
+opens it for writing (truncating an existing file),
+{\tt 'a'}
+opens it for appending.%
+\footnote{
+This function should go into a built-in module
+{\tt io}.
+}
+\item[{\tt range()}]
+This is a versatile function to create lists containing arithmetic
+progressions of integers.
+With two integer arguments, it returns the ascending sequence of
+integers starting at the first and ending one before the second
+argument.
+A single argument is used as the end point of the sequence, with 0 used
+as the starting point.
+A third argument specifies the step size; negative steps are allowed and
+work as expected, but don't specify a zero step.
+The resulting list may be empty.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> range(10)
+[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+>>> range(1, 1+10)
+[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
+>>> range(0, 30, 5)
+[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
+>>> range(0, 10, 3)
+[0, 3, 6, 9]
+>>> range(0, -10, -1)
+[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
+>>> range(0)
+[]
+>>> range(1, 0)
+[]
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt raw\_input(s)}]
+%.br
+The argument is optional; if present, it is written to standard output
+without a trailing newline.
+The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a string
+(stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.
+EOF is reported as an exception.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> raw_input('Type anything: ')
+Type anything: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
+'Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt type(x)}]
+Returns the type of an object.
+Types are objects themselves:
+the type of a type object is its own type.
+\end{description}
+
+\section{Built-in Modules}
+
+The modules described in this section are built into the interpreter.
+They must be imported using
+{\tt import}.
+Some modules are not always available; it is a configuration option to
+provide them.
+Details are listed with the descriptions, but the best way to see if
+a module exists in a particular implementation is to attempt to import
+it.
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt sys}}
+
+This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
+interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter.
+It is always available.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt argv}]
+The list of command line arguments passed to a {\Python} script.
+{\tt sys.argv[0]}
+is the script name.
+If no script name was passed to the {\Python} interpreter,
+{\tt sys.argv}
+is empty.
+\item[{\tt exit(n)}]
+Exits from {\Python} with numeric exit status
+{\tt n}.
+This closes all open files and performs other cleanup-actions required by
+the interpreter (but
+{\em finally clauses}
+of
+{\tt try}
+statements are not executed!).
+\item[{\tt modules}]
+Gives the list of modules that have already been loaded.
+This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks.
+\item[{\tt path}]
+A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules.
+Initialized from the environment variable {\tt PYTHONPATH}, or an
+installation-dependent default.
+\item[{\tt ps1,~ps2}]
+Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the interpreter.
+These are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.
+Their initial values in this case are
+{\tt '>>> '}
+and
+{\tt '... '}.
+\item[{\tt stdin, stdout, stderr}]
+%.br
+File objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard input, output
+and error streams.
+{\tt sys.stdin}
+is used for all interpreter input except for scripts but including calls
+to
+{\tt input()}
+and
+{\tt raw\_input()}.
+{\tt sys.stdout}
+is used for the output of
+{\tt print} and expression statements
+and for the prompts of
+{\tt input()}
+and
+{\tt raw\_input()}.
+The interpreter's own prompts and its error messages are written to
+stderr.
+Assigning to
+{\tt sys.stderr}
+has no effect on the interpreter; it can be used to write error messages
+to stderr using
+{\tt print}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt math}}
+
+This module is always available.
+It provides access to the mathematical functions defined by the C
+standard.
+They are:
+{\tt acos(x)},
+{\tt asin(x)},
+{\tt atan(x)},
+{\tt atan2(x,y)},
+{\tt ceil(x)},
+{\tt cos(x)},
+{\tt cosh(x)},
+{\tt exp(x)},
+{\tt fabs(x)},
+{\tt floor(x)},
+%{\tt fmod(...)} XXX not yet
+%{\tt frexp(...)} XXX not yet
+%{\tt ldexp(...)} XXX not yet
+{\tt log(x)},
+{\tt log10(x)},
+%{\tt modf(...)} XXX not yet
+{\tt pow(x,y)},
+{\tt sin(x)},
+{\tt sinh(x)},
+{\tt sqrt(x)},
+{\tt tan(x)},
+{\tt tanh(x)}.
+
+It also defines two mathematical constants:
+{\tt pi}
+and
+{\tt e}.
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt time}}
+
+This module provides various time-related functions.
+It is always available.
+Functions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt sleep(secs)}]
+Suspends execution for the given number of seconds.
+\item[{\tt time()}]
+Returns the time in seconds since the Epoch (Thursday January 1,
+00:00:00, 1970 UCT on \UNIX\ machines).
+\end{description}
+
+\noindent
+In some versions (Amoeba, Mac) the following functions also exist:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt millisleep(msecs)}]
+Suspends execution for the given number of milliseconds.
+\item[{\tt millitimer()}]
+Returns the number of milliseconds of real time elapsed since some point
+in the past that is fixed per execution of the python interpreter (but
+may change in each following run).
+\end{description}
+
+\noindent
+The granularity of the milliseconds functions may be more than a
+millisecond (100 msecs on Amoeba, 1/60 sec on the Mac).
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt posix}}
+
+This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
+standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly diguised
+{\UNIX} interface).
+It is available in all {\Python} versions except on the Macintosh.
+Errors are reported exceptions.
+It defines the following items:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt chdir(path)}]
+Changes the current directory to
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt chmod(path, mode)}]
+Change the mode of
+{\tt path}
+to the numeric
+{\tt mode}.
+\item[{\tt environ}]
+A dictionary representing the string environment at the time
+the interpreter was started.
+(Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment of the
+interpreter.)
+For example,
+{\tt posix.environ['HOME']}
+is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to
+{\tt getenv("HOME")}
+in C.
+\item[{\tt error = 'posix.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised when an POSIX function returns an error.
+The value accompanying this exception is a pair containing the numeric
+error code from
+{\tt errno}
+and the corresponding string, as would be printed by the C function
+{\tt perror()}.
+\item[{\tt getcwd()}]
+Returns a string representing the current working directory.
+\item[{\tt link(src, dst)}]
+Creates a hard link pointing to
+{\tt src}
+named
+{\tt dst}.
+\item[{\tt listdir(path)}]
+Returns a list containing the names of the entries in the
+directory.
+The list is in arbitrary order.
+It includes the special entries
+{\tt '.'}
+and
+{\tt '..'}
+if they are present in the directory.
+\item[{\tt mkdir(path, mode)}]
+Creates a directory named
+{\tt path}
+with numeric mode
+{\tt mode}.
+\item[{\tt rename(src, dst)}]
+Renames the file or directory
+{\tt src}
+to
+{\tt dst}.
+\item[{\tt rmdir(path)}]
+Removes the directory
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt stat(path)}]
+Performs a
+{\em stat}
+system call on the given path.
+The return value is a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
+important (and portable) members of the
+{\em stat}
+structure, in the order
+{\tt st\_mode},
+{\tt st\_ino},
+{\tt st\_dev},
+{\tt st\_nlink},
+{\tt st\_uid},
+{\tt st\_gid},
+{\tt st\_size},
+{\tt st\_atime},
+{\tt st\_mtime},
+{\tt st\_ctime}.
+More items may be added at the end by some implementations.
+\item[{\tt system(command)}]
+Executes the command (a string) in a subshell.
+This is implemented by calling the Standard C function
+{\tt system()},
+and has the same limitations.
+Changes to
+{\tt posix.environ},
+{\tt sys.stdin}
+etc. are not reflected in the environment of the executed command.
+The return value is the exit status of the process as returned by
+Standard C
+{\tt system()}.
+\item[{\tt umask(mask)}]
+Sets the current numeric umask and returns the previous umask.
+\item[{\tt unlink(path)}]
+Unlinks the file
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt utimes(path, (atime, mtime))}]
+%.br
+Sets the access and modified time of the file to the given values.
+(The second argument is a tuple of two items.)
+\end{description}
+
+The following functions are only available on systems that support
+symbolic links:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt lstat(path)}]
+Like
+{\tt stat()},
+but does not follow symbolic links.
+\item[{\tt readlink(path)}]
+Returns a string representing the path to which the symbolic link
+points.
+\item[{\tt symlink(src, dst)}]
+Creates a symbolic link pointing to
+{\tt src}
+named
+{\tt dst}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt stdwin}}
+
+This module defines several new object types and functions that
+provide access to the functionality of the Standard Window System
+Interface, STDWIN [CWI report CR-R8817].
+It is available on systems to which STDWIN has been ported (which is
+most systems).
+It is only available if the {\tt DISPLAY} environment variable is set
+or an explicit `{\tt -display \it displayname}' argument is passed to
+the interpreter.
+
+Functions have names that usually resemble their C STDWIN counterparts
+with the initial `w' dropped.
+Points are represented by pairs of integers; rectangles
+by pairs of points.
+For a complete description of STDWIN please refer to the documentation
+of STDWIN for C programmers (aforementioned CWI report).
+\subsubsection{Functions Defined in Module {\tt stdwin}}
+
+The following functions are defined in the {\tt stdwin} module:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt open(title)}]
+%.br
+Opens a new window whose initial title is given by the string argument.
+Returns a window object; window object methods are described below.%
+\footnote{
+The {\Python} version of STDWIN does not support draw procedures; all
+drawing requests are reported as draw events.
+}
+\item[{\tt getevent()}]
+%.br
+Waits for and returns the next event.
+An event is returned as a triple: the first element is the event
+type, a small integer; the second element is the window object to which
+the event applies, or
+{\tt None}
+if it applies to no window in particular;
+the third element is type-dependent.
+Names for event types and command codes are defined in the standard
+module
+{\tt stdwinevent}.
+\item[{\tt setdefwinpos(h, v)}]
+%.br
+Sets the default window position.
+\item[{\tt setdefwinsize(width, height)}]
+%.br
+Sets the default window size.
+\item[{\tt menucreate(title)}]
+%.br
+Creates a menu object referring to a global menu (a menu that appears in
+all windows).
+Methods of menu objects are described below.
+\item[{\tt fleep()}]
+%.br
+Causes a beep or bell (or perhaps a `visual bell' or flash, hence the
+name).
+\item[{\tt message(string)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog box containing the string.
+The user must click OK before the function returns.
+\item[{\tt askync(prompt, default)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog that prompts the user to answer a question with yes or
+no.
+The function returns 0 for no, 1 for yes.
+If the user hits the Return key, the default (which must be 0 or 1) is
+returned.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt askstr(prompt, default)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog that prompts the user for a string.
+If the user hits the Return key, the default string is returned.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt askfile(prompt, default, new)}]
+%.br
+Asks the user to specify a filename.
+If
+{\tt new}
+is zero it must be an existing file; otherwise, it must be a new file.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt setcutbuffer(i, string)}]
+%.br
+Stores the string in the system's cut buffer number
+{\tt i},
+where it can be found (for pasting) by other applications.
+On X11, there are 8 cut buffers (numbered 0..7).
+Cut buffer number 0 is the `clipboard' on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt getcutbuffer(i)}]
+%.br
+Returns the contents of the system's cut buffer number
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt rotatebutbuffers(n)}]
+%.br
+On X11, this rotates the 8 cut buffers by
+{\tt n}.
+Ignored on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt getselection(i)}]
+%.br
+Returns X11 selection number
+{\tt i.}
+Selections are not cut buffers.
+Selection numbers are defined in module
+{\tt stdwinevents}.
+Selection {\tt WS\_PRIMARY} is the
+{\em primary}
+selection (used by
+xterm,
+for instance);
+selection {\tt WS\_SECONDARY} is the
+{\em secondary}
+selection; selection {\tt WS\_CLIPBOARD} is the
+{\em clipboard}
+selection (used by
+xclipboard).
+On the Macintosh, this always returns an empty string.
+\item[{\tt resetselection(i)}]
+%.br
+Resets selection number
+{\tt i},
+if this process owns it.
+(See window method
+{\tt setselection()}).
+\item[{\tt baseline()}]
+%.br
+Return the baseline of the current font (defined by STDWIN as the
+vertical distance between the baseline and the top of the
+characters).%
+\footnote{
+There is no way yet to set the current font.
+This will change in a future version.
+}
+\item[{\tt lineheight()}]
+%.br
+Return the total line height of the current font.
+\item[{\tt textbreak(str, width)}]
+%.br
+Return the number of characters of the string that fit into a space of
+{\tt width}
+bits wide when drawn in the curent font.
+\item[{\tt textwidth(str)}]
+%.br
+Return the width in bits of the string when drawn in the current font.
+\subsubsection{Window Object Methods}
+\end{description}
+
+Window objects are created by
+{\tt stdwin.open()}.
+There is no explicit function to close a window; windows are closed when
+they are garbage-collected.
+Window objects have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt begindrawing()}]
+Returns a drawing object, whose methods (described below) allow drawing
+in the window.
+\item[{\tt change(rect)}]
+Invalidates the given rectangle; this may cause a draw event.
+\item[{\tt gettitle()}]
+Returns the window's title string.
+\item[{\tt getdocsize()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the size of the document as set by
+{\tt setdocsize()}.
+\item[{\tt getorigin()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the origin of the window with respect
+to the document.
+\item[{\tt getwinsize()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the size of the window.
+\item[{\tt menucreate(title)}]
+Creates a menu object referring to a local menu (a menu that appears
+only in this window).
+Methods menu objects are described below.
+\item[{\tt scroll(rect,~point)}]
+Scrolls the given rectangle by the vector given by the point.
+\item[{\tt setwincursor(name)}]
+Sets the window cursor to a cursor of the given name.
+It raises the
+{\tt Runtime\-Error}
+exception if no cursor of the given name exists.
+Suitable names are
+{\tt 'ibeam'},
+{\tt 'arrow'},
+{\tt 'cross'},
+{\tt 'watch'}
+and
+{\tt 'plus'}.
+On X11, there are many more (see
+{\tt <X11/cursorfont.h>}).
+\item[{\tt setdocsize(point)}]
+Sets the size of the drawing document.
+\item[{\tt setorigin(point)}]
+Moves the origin of the window to the given point in the document.
+\item[{\tt setselection(i, str)}]
+Attempts to set X11 selection number
+{\tt i}
+to the string
+{\tt str}.
+(See stdwin method
+{\tt getselection()}
+for the meaning of
+{\tt i}.)
+Returns true if it succeeds.
+If it succeeds, the window ``owns'' the selection until
+(a) another applications takes ownership of the selection; or
+(b) the window is deleted; or
+(c) the application clears ownership by calling
+{\tt stdwin.resetselection(i)}.
+When another application takes ownership of the selection, a
+{\tt WE\_LOST\_SEL}
+event is received for no particular window and with the selection number
+as detail.
+Ignored on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt settitle(title)}]
+Sets the window's title string.
+\item[{\tt settimer(dsecs)}]
+Schedules a timer event for the window in
+{\tt dsecs/10}
+seconds.
+\item[{\tt show(rect)}]
+Tries to ensure that the given rectangle of the document is visible in
+the window.
+\item[{\tt textcreate(rect)}]
+Creates a text-edit object in the document at the given rectangle.
+Methods of text-edit objects are described below.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Drawing Object Methods}
+
+Drawing objects are created exclusively by the window method
+{\tt begindrawing()}.
+Only one drawing object can exist at any given time; the drawing object
+must be deleted to finish drawing.
+No drawing object may exist when
+{\tt stdwin.getevent()}
+is called.
+Drawing objects have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt box(rect)}]
+Draws a box around a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt circle(center, radius)}]
+%.br
+Draws a circle with given center point and radius.
+\item[{\tt elarc(center, (rh, rv), (a1, a2))}]
+%.br
+Draws an elliptical arc with given center point.
+{\tt (rh, rv)}
+gives the half sizes of the horizontal and vertical radii.
+{\tt (a1, a2)}
+gives the angles (in degrees) of the begin and end points.
+0 degrees is at 3 o'clock, 90 degrees is at 12 o'clock.
+\item[{\tt erase(rect)}]
+Erases a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt invert(rect)}]
+Inverts a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt line(p1, p2)}]
+Draws a line from point
+{\tt p1}
+to
+{\tt p2}.
+\item[{\tt paint(rect)}]
+Fills a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt text(p, str)}]
+Draws a string starting at point p (the point specifies the
+top left coordinate of the string).
+\item[{\tt shade(rect, percent)}]
+%.br
+Fills a rectangle with a shading pattern that is about
+{\tt percent}
+percent filled.
+\item[{\tt xorline(p1, p2)}]
+Draws a line in XOR mode.
+\item[{\tt baseline(), lineheight(), textbreak(), textwidth()}]
+%.br
+These functions are similar to the corresponding functions described
+above for the
+{\tt stdwin}
+module, but use the current font of the window instead of the (global)
+default font.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Menu Object Methods}
+
+A menu object represents a menu.
+The menu is destroyed when the menu object is deleted.
+The following methods are defined:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt additem(text, shortcut)}]
+%.br
+Adds a menu item with given text.
+The shortcut must be a string of length 1, or omitted (to specify no
+shortcut).
+\item[{\tt setitem(i, text)}]
+Sets the text of item number
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt enable(i, flag)}]
+Enables or disables item
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt check(i, flag)}]
+Sets or clears the
+{\em check mark}
+for item
+{\tt i}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Text-edit Object Methods}
+
+A text-edit object represents a text-edit block.
+For semantics, see the STDWIN documentation for C programmers.
+The following methods exist:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt arrow(code)}]
+Passes an arrow event to the text-edit block.
+The
+{\tt code}
+must be one of
+{\tt WC\_LEFT},
+{\tt WC\_RIGHT},
+{\tt WC\_UP}
+or
+{\tt WC\_DOWN}
+(see module
+{\tt stdwinevents}).
+\item[{\tt draw(rect)}]
+Passes a draw event to the text-edit block.
+The rectangle specifies the redraw area.
+\item[{\tt event(type, window, detail)}]
+%.br
+Passes an event gotten from
+{\tt stdwin.getevent()}
+to the text-edit block.
+Returns true if the event was handled.
+\item[{\tt getfocus()}]
+Returns 2 integers representing the start and end positions of the
+focus, usable as slice indices on the string returned by
+{\tt getfocustext()}.
+\item[{\tt getfocustext()}]
+Returns the text in the focus.
+\item[{\tt getrect()}]
+Returns a rectangle giving the actual position of the text-edit block.
+(The bottom coordinate may differ from the initial position because
+the block automatically shrinks or grows to fit.)
+\item[{\tt gettext()}]
+Returns the entire text buffer.
+\item[{\tt move(rect)}]
+Specifies a new position for the text-edit block in the document.
+\item[{\tt replace(str)}]
+Replaces the focus by the given string.
+The new focus is an insert point at the end of the string.
+\item[{\tt setfocus(i,~j)}]
+Specifies the new focus.
+Out-of-bounds values are silently clipped.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt amoeba}}
+
+This module provides some object types and operations useful for
+Amoeba applications.
+It is only available on systems that support Amoeba operations.
+RPC errors and other Amoeba errors are reported as the exception
+{\tt amoeba.error = 'amoeba.error'}.
+The module
+{\tt amoeba}
+defines the following items:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt name\_append(path,~cap)}]
+%.br
+Stores a capability in the Amoeba directory tree.
+Arguments are the pathname (a string) and the capability (a capability
+object as returned by
+{\tt name\_lookup()}).
+\item[{\tt name\_delete(path)}]
+%.br
+Deletes a capability from the Amoeba directory tree.
+Argument is the pathname.
+\item[{\tt name\_lookup(path)}]
+%.br
+Looks up a capability.
+Argument is the pathname.
+Returns a
+{\em capability}
+object, to which various interesting operations apply, described below.
+\item[{\tt name\_replace(path,~cap)}]
+%.br
+Replaces a capability in the Amoeba directory tree.
+Arguments are the pathname and the new capability.
+(This differs from
+{\tt name\_append()}
+in the behavior when the pathname already exists:
+{\tt name\_append()}
+finds this an error while
+{\tt name\_replace()}
+allows it, as its name suggests.)
+\item[{\tt capv}]
+A table representing the capability environment at the time the
+interpreter was started.
+(Alas, modifying this table does not affect the capability environment
+of the interpreter.)
+For example,
+{\tt amoeba.capv['ROOT']}
+is the capability of your root directory, similar to
+{\tt getcap("ROOT")}
+in C.
+\item[{\tt error = 'amoeba.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised when an Amoeba function returns an error.
+The value accompanying this exception is a pair containing the numeric
+error code and the corresponding string, as returned by the C function
+{\tt err\_why()}.
+\item[{\tt timeout(msecs)}]
+%.br
+Sets the transaction timeout, in milliseconds.
+Returns the previous timeout.
+Initially, the timeout is set to 2 seconds by the {\Python} interpreter.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Capability Operations}
+
+Capabilities are written in a convenient ASCII format, also used by the
+Amoeba utilities
+{\em c2a}(U)
+and
+{\em a2c}(U).
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> amoeba.name_lookup('/profile/cap')
+aa:1c:95:52:6a:fa/14(ff)/8e:ba:5b:8:11:1a
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+The following methods are defined for capability objects.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt dir\_list()}]
+Returns a list of the names of the entries in an Amoeba directory.
+\item[{\tt b\_read(offset, maxsize)}]
+%.br
+Reads (at most)
+{\tt maxsize}
+bytes from a bullet file at offset
+{\tt offset.}
+The data is returned as a string.
+EOF is reported as an empty string.
+\item[{\tt b\_size()}]
+Returns the size of a bullet file.
+\item[{\tt dir\_append(), dir\_delete(), dir\_lookup(), dir\_replace()}]
+%.br
+Like the corresponding
+{\tt name\_*}
+functions, but with a path relative to the capability.
+(For paths beginning with a slash the capability is ignored, since this
+is the defined semantics for Amoeba.)
+\item[{\tt std\_info()}]
+Returns the standard info string of the object.
+\item[{\tt tod\_gettime()}]
+Returns the time (in seconds since the Epoch, in UCT, as for POSIX) from
+a time server.
+\item[{\tt tod\_settime(t)}]
+Sets the time kept by a time server.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt audio}}
+
+This module provides rudimentary access to the audio I/O device
+{\tt /dev/audio}
+on the Silicon Graphics Personal IRIS; see audio(7).
+It supports the following operations:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt setoutgain(n)}]
+Sets the output gain (0-255).
+\item[{\tt getoutgain()}]
+Returns the output gain.
+\item[{\tt setrate(n)}]
+Sets the sampling rate: 1=32K/sec, 2=16K/sec, 3=8K/sec.
+\item[{\tt setduration(n)}]
+Sets the `sound duration' in units of 1/100 seconds.
+\item[{\tt read(n)}]
+Reads a chunk of
+{\tt n}
+sampled bytes from the audio input (line in or microphone).
+The chunk is returned as a string of length n.
+Each byte encodes one sample as a signed 8-bit quantity using linear
+encoding.
+This string can be converted to numbers using {\tt chr2num()} described
+below.
+\item[{\tt write(buf)}]
+Writes a chunk of samples to the audio output (speaker).
+\end{description}
+
+These operations support asynchronous audio I/O:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt start\_recording(n)}]
+%.br
+Starts a second thread (a process with shared memory) that begins reading
+{\tt n}
+bytes from the audio device.
+The main thread immediately continues.
+\item[{\tt wait\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Waits for the second thread to finish and returns the data read.
+\item[{\tt stop\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Makes the second thread stop reading as soon as possible.
+Returns the data read so far.
+\item[{\tt poll\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the second thread has finished reading (so
+{\tt wait\_recording()} would return the data without delay).
+\item[{\tt start\_playing(chunk)}, {\tt wait\_playing()},
+{\tt stop\_playing()}, {\tt poll\_playing()}]
+%.br
+Similar but for output.
+{\tt stop\_playing()}
+returns a lower bound for the number of bytes actually played (not very
+accurate).
+\end{description}
+
+The following operations do not affect the audio device but are
+implemented in C for efficiency:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt amplify(buf, f1, f2)}]
+%.br
+Amplifies a chunk of samples by a variable factor changing from
+{\tt f1}/256 to {\tt f2}/256.
+Negative factors are allowed.
+Resulting values that are to large to fit in a byte are clipped.
+\item[{\tt reverse(buf)}]
+%.br
+Returns a chunk of samples backwards.
+\item[{\tt add(buf1, buf2)}]
+%.br
+Bytewise adds two chunks of samples.
+Bytes that exceed the range are clipped.
+If one buffer shorter, it is assumed to be padded with zeros.
+\item[{\tt chr2num(buf)}]
+%.br
+Converts a string of sampled bytes as returned by {\tt read()} into
+a list containing the numeric values of the samples.
+\item[{\tt num2chr(list)}]
+%.br
+Converts a list as returned by
+{\tt chr2num()}
+back to a buffer acceptable by
+{\tt write()}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt gl}}
+
+This module provides access to the Silicon Graphics
+{\em Graphics Library}.
+It is available only on Silicon Graphics machines.
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+Some illegal calls to the GL library cause the {\Python} interpreter to dump
+core.
+In particular, the use of most GL calls is unsafe before the first
+window is opened.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety, but the
+following should help you to get started.
+The parameter conventions for the C functions are translated to {\Python} as
+follows:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item
+All (short, long, unsigned) int values are represented by {\Python}
+integers.
+\item
+All float and double values are represented by {\Python} floating point
+numbers.
+In most cases, {\Python} integers are also allowed.
+\item
+All arrays are represented by one-dimensional {\Python} lists.
+In most cases, tuples are also allowed.
+\item
+All string and character arguments are represented by {\Python} strings,
+e.g.,
+{\tt winopen('Hi~There!')}
+and
+{\tt rotate(900,~'z')}.
+\item
+All (short, long, unsigned) integer arguments or return values that are
+only used to specify the length of an array argument are omitted.
+For example, the C call
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+lmdef(deftype, index, np, props)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is translated to {\Python} as
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+lmdef(deftype, index, props)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item
+Output arguments are omitted from the argument list; they are
+transmitted as function return values instead.
+If more than one value must be returned, the return value is a tuple.
+If the C function has both a regular return value (that is not omitted
+because of the previous rule) and an output argument, the return value
+comes first in the tuple.
+Examples: the C call
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+getmcolor(i, &red, &green, &blue)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is translated to {\Python} as
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+red, green, blue = getmcolor(i)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\end{itemize}
+
+The following functions are non-standard or have special argument
+conventions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt varray()}]
+Equivalent to but faster than a number of
+{\tt v3d()}
+calls.
+The argument is a list (or tuple) of points.
+Each point must be a tuple of coordinates (x, y, z) or (x, y).
+The points may be 2- or 3-dimensional but must all have the
+same dimension.
+Float and int values may be mixed however.
+The points are always converted to 3D double precision points
+by assuming z=0.0 if necessary (as indicated in the man page),
+and for each point
+{\tt v3d()}
+is called.
+\item[{\tt nvarray()}]
+Equivalent to but faster than a number of
+{\tt n3f}
+and
+{\tt v3f}
+calls.
+The argument is an array (list or tuple) of pairs of normals and points.
+Each pair is a tuple of a point and a normal for that point.
+Each point or normal must be a tuple of coordinates (x, y, z).
+Three coordinates must be given.
+Float and int values may be mixed.
+For each pair,
+{\tt n3f()}
+is called for the normal, and then
+{\tt v3f()}
+is called for the point.
+\item[{\tt vnarray()}]
+Similar to
+{\tt nvarray()}
+but the pairs have the point first and the normal second.
+\item[{\tt nurbssurface(s\_k[], t\_k[], ctl[][], s\_ord, t\_ord, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a nurbs surface.
+The dimensions of
+{\tt ctl[][]}
+are computed as follows:
+{\tt [len(s\_k)~-~s\_ord]},
+{\tt [len(t\_k)~-~t\_ord]}.
+\item[{\tt nurbscurve(knots, ctlpoints, order, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a nurbs curve.
+The length of ctlpoints is
+{\tt len(knots)~-~order}.
+\item[{\tt pwlcurve(points, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a piecewise-linear curve.
+{\tt points}
+is a list of points.
+{\tt type}
+must be
+{\tt N\_ST}.
+\item[{\tt pick(n), select(n)}]
+%.br
+The only argument to these functions specifies the desired size of the
+pick or select buffer.
+\item[{\tt endpick(), endselect()}]
+%.br
+These functions have no arguments.
+They return a list of integers representing the used part of the
+pick/select buffer.
+No method is provided to detect buffer overrun.
+\end{description}
+
+Here is a tiny but complete example GL program in {\Python}:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+import gl, GL, time
+
+def main():
+ gl.foreground()
+ gl.prefposition(500, 900, 500, 900)
+ w = gl.winopen('CrissCross')
+ gl.ortho2(0.0, 400.0, 0.0, 400.0)
+ gl.color(GL.WHITE)
+ gl.clear()
+ gl.color(GL.RED)
+ gl.bgnline()
+ gl.v2f(0.0, 0.0)
+ gl.v2f(400.0, 400.0)
+ gl.endline()
+ gl.bgnline()
+ gl.v2f(400.0, 0.0)
+ gl.v2f(0.0, 400.0)
+ gl.endline()
+ time.sleep(5)
+
+main()
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt pnl}}
+
+This module provides access to the
+{\em Panel Library}
+built by NASA Ames (write to
+{\tt panel-request@nas.nasa.gov}
+to get it).
+All access to it should be done through the standard module
+{\tt panel},
+which transparantly exports most functions from
+{\tt pnl}
+but redefines
+{\tt pnl.dopanel()}.
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+the {\Python} interpreter will dump core if you don't create a GL window
+before calling
+{\tt pnl.mkpanel()}.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety.
+
+\section{Standard Modules}
+
+The following standard modules are defined.
+They are available in one of the directories in the default module
+search path (try printing
+{\tt sys.path}
+to find out the default search path.)
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt string}}
+
+This module defines some constants useful for checking character
+classes, some exceptions, and some useful string functions.
+The constants are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt digits}]
+The string
+{\tt '0123456789'}.
+\item[{\tt hexdigits}]
+The string
+{\tt '0123456789abcdefABCDEF'}.
+\item[{\tt letters}]
+The concatenation of the strings
+{\tt lowercase}
+and
+{\tt uppercase}
+described below.
+\item[{\tt lowercase}]
+The string
+{\tt 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'}.
+\item[{\tt octdigits}]
+The string
+{\tt '01234567'}.
+\item[{\tt uppercase}]
+The string
+{\tt 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'}.
+\item[{\tt whitespace}]
+A string containing all characters that are considered whitespace,
+i.e.,
+space, tab and newline.
+This definition is used by
+{\tt split()}
+and
+{\tt strip()}.
+\end{description}
+
+The exceptions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt atoi\_error = 'non-numeric argument to string.atoi'}]
+%.br
+Exception raised by
+{\tt atoi}
+when a non-numeric string argument is detected.
+The exception argument is the offending string.
+\item[{\tt index\_error = 'substring not found in string.index'}]
+%.br
+Exception raised by
+{\tt index}
+when
+{\tt sub}
+is not found.
+The argument are the offending arguments to index: {\tt (s, sub)}.
+\end{description}
+
+The functions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt atoi(s)}]
+Converts a string to a number.
+The string must consist of one or more digits, optionally preceded by a
+sign ({\tt '+'} or {\tt '-'}).
+\item[{\tt index(s, sub)}]
+Returns the lowest index in
+{\tt s}
+where the substring
+{\tt sub}
+is found.
+\item[{\tt lower(s)}]
+Convert letters to lower case.
+\item[{\tt split(s)}]
+Returns a list of the whitespace-delimited words of the string
+{\tt s}.
+\item[{\tt splitfields(s, sep)}]
+%.br
+Returns a list containing the fields of the string
+{\tt s},
+using the string
+{\tt sep}
+as a separator.
+The list will have one more items than the number of non-overlapping
+occurrences of the separator in the string.
+Thus,
+{\tt string.splitfields(s, ' ')}
+is not the same as
+{\tt string.split(s)},
+as the latter only returns non-empty words.
+\item[{\tt strip(s)}]
+Removes leading and trailing whitespace from the string
+{\tt s}.
+\item[{\tt swapcase(s)}]
+Converts lower case letters to upper case and vice versa.
+\item[{\tt upper(s)}]
+Convert letters to upper case.
+\item[{\tt ljust(s, width), rjust(s, width), center(s, width)}]
+%.br
+These functions respectively left-justify, right-justify and center a
+string in a field of given width.
+They return a string that is at least
+{\tt width}
+characters wide, created by padding the string
+{\tt s}
+with spaces until the given width on the right, left or both sides.
+The string is never truncated.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt path}}
+
+This module implements some useful functions on POSIX pathnames.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt basename(p)}]
+Returns the base name of pathname
+{\tt p}.
+This is the second half of the pair returned by
+{\tt path.split(p)}.
+\item[{\tt cat(p, q)}]
+Performs intelligent pathname concatenation on paths
+{\tt p}
+and
+{\tt q}:
+If
+{\tt q}
+is an absolute path, the return value is
+{\tt q}.
+Otherwise, the concatenation of
+{\tt p}
+and
+{\tt q}
+is returned, with a slash ({\tt '/'}) inserted unless
+{\tt p}
+is empty or ends in a slash.
+\item[{\tt commonprefix(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the longest string that is a prefix of all strings in
+{\tt list}.
+If
+{\tt list}
+is empty, the empty string ({\tt ''}) is returned.
+\item[{\tt exists(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to an existing path.
+\item[{\tt isdir(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to an existing directory.
+\item[{\tt islink(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to a directory entry that is a symbolic link.
+Always false if symbolic links are not supported.
+\item[{\tt ismount(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+is an absolute path that occurs in the mount table as output by the
+{\tt /etc/mount}
+utility.
+This output is read once when the function is used for the first
+time.%
+\footnote{
+Is there a better way to check for mount points?
+}
+\item[{\tt split(p)}]
+Returns a pair
+{\tt (head,~tail)}
+such that
+{\tt tail}
+contains no slashes and
+{\tt path.cat(head, tail)}
+is equal to
+{\tt p}.
+\item[{\tt walk(p, visit, arg)}]
+%.br
+Calls the function
+{\tt visit}
+with arguments
+{\tt (arg, dirname, names)}
+for each directory in the directory tree rooted at
+{\tt p}
+(including
+{\tt p}
+itself, if it is a directory).
+The argument
+{\tt dirname}
+specifies the visited directory, the argument
+{\tt names}
+lists the files in the directory (gotten from
+{\tt posix.listdir(dirname)}).
+The
+{\tt visit}
+function may modify
+{\tt names}
+to influence the set of directories visited below
+{\tt dirname},
+e.g.,
+to avoid visiting certain parts of the tree.
+(The object referred to by
+{\tt names}
+must be modified in place, using
+{\tt del}
+or slice assignment.)
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt getopt}}
+
+This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
+{\tt sys.argv}.
+It uses the same conventions as the {\UNIX}
+{\tt getopt()}
+function.
+It defines the function
+{\tt getopt.getopt(args, options)}
+and the exception
+{\tt getopt.error}.
+
+The first argument to
+{\tt getopt()}
+is the argument list passed to the script with its first element
+chopped off (i.e.,
+{\tt sys.argv[1:]}).
+The second argument is the string of option letters that the
+script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument
+followed by a colon (i.e., the same format that {\UNIX}
+{\tt getopt()}
+uses).
+The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of
+option-and-value pairs; the second is the list of program arguments
+left after the option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of the
+first argument).
+Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element,
+prefixed with a hyphen (e.g.,
+{\tt '-x'}),
+and the option argument as its second element, or an empty string if the
+option has no argument.
+The options occur in the list in the same order in which they were
+found, thus allowing multiple occurrences.
+Example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import getopt, string
+>>> args = string.split('-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2')
+>>> args
+['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
+>>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
+>>> optlist
+[('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
+>>> args
+['a1', 'a2']
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+The exception
+{\tt getopt.error = 'getopt error'}
+is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or
+when an option requiring an argument is given none.
+The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
+error.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt rand}}
+
+This module implements a pseudo-random number generator similar to
+{\tt rand()}
+in C.
+It defines the following functions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt rand()}]
+Returns an integer random number in the range [0 ... 32768).
+\item[{\tt choice(s)}]
+Returns a random element from the sequence (string, tuple or list)
+{\tt s.}
+\item[{\tt srand(seed)}]
+Initializes the random number generator with the given integral seed.
+When the module is first imported, the random number is initialized with
+the current time.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt whrandom}}
+
+This module implements a Wichmann-Hill pseudo-random number generator.
+It defines the following functions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt random()}]
+Returns the next random floating point number in the range [0.0 ... 1.0).
+\item[{\tt seed(x, y, z)}]
+Initializes the random number generator from the integers
+{\tt x},
+{\tt y}
+and
+{\tt z}.
+When the module is first imported, the random number is initialized
+using values derived from the current time.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt stdwinevents}}
+
+This module defines constants used by STDWIN for event types
+({\tt WE\_ACTIVATE} etc.), command codes ({\tt WC\_LEFT} etc.)
+and selection types ({\tt WS\_PRIMARY} etc.).
+Read the file for details.
+Suggested usage is
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> from stdwinevents import *
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt rect}}
+
+This module contains useful operations on rectangles.
+A rectangle is defined as in module
+{\tt stdwin}:
+a pair of points, where a point is a pair of integers.
+For example, the rectangle
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+(10, 20), (90, 80)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is a rectangle whose left, top, right and bottom edges are 10, 20, 90
+and 80, respectively.
+Note that the positive vertical axis points down (as in
+{\tt stdwin}).
+
+The module defines the following objects:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt error = 'rect.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised by functions in this module when they detect an
+error.
+The exception argument is a string describing the problem in more
+detail.
+\item[{\tt empty}]
+%.br
+The rectangle returned when some operations return an empty result.
+This makes it possible to quickly check whether a result is empty:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import rect
+>>> r1 = (10, 20), (90, 80)
+>>> r2 = (0, 0), (10, 20)
+>>> r3 = rect.intersect(r1, r2)
+>>> if r3 is rect.empty: print 'Empty intersection'
+Empty intersection
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt is\_empty(r)}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the given rectangle is empty.
+A rectangle
+{\em (left,~top), (right,~bottom)}
+is empty if
+{\em left~$\geq$~right}
+or
+{\em top~$\leq$~bottom}.
+\item[{\tt intersect(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the intersection of all rectangles in the list argument.
+It may also be called with a tuple argument or with two or more
+rectangles as arguments.
+Raises
+{\tt rect.error}
+if the list is empty.
+Returns
+{\tt rect.empty}
+if the intersection of the rectangles is empty.
+\item[{\tt union(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the smallest rectangle that contains all non-empty rectangles in
+the list argument.
+It may also be called with a tuple argument or with two or more
+rectangles as arguments.
+Returns
+{\tt rect.empty}
+if the list is empty or all its rectangles are empty.
+\item[{\tt pointinrect(point, rect)}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the point is inside the rectangle.
+By definition, a point
+{\em (h,~v)}
+is inside a rectangle
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (right,~bottom)}
+if
+{\em left~$\leq$~h~$<$~right}
+and
+{\em top~$\leq$~v~$<$~bottom}.
+\item[{\tt inset(rect, (dh, dv))}]
+%.br
+Returns a rectangle that lies inside the
+{\tt rect}
+argument by
+{\tt dh}
+pixels horizontally
+and
+{\tt dv}
+pixels
+vertically.
+If
+{\tt dh}
+or
+{\tt dv}
+is negative, the result lies outside
+{\tt rect}.
+\item[{\tt rect2geom(rect)}]
+%.br
+Converts a rectangle to geometry representation:
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (width,~height)}.
+\item[{\tt geom2rect(geom)}]
+%.br
+Converts a rectangle given in geometry representation back to the
+standard rectangle representation
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (right,~bottom)}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Modules {\tt GL} and {\tt DEVICE}}
+
+These modules define the constants used by the Silicon Graphics
+{\em Graphics Library}
+that C programmers find in the header files
+{\tt <gl/gl.h>}
+and
+{\tt <gl/device.h>}.
+Read the module files for details.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt panel}}
+
+This module should be used instead of the built-in module
+{\tt pnl}
+to interface with the
+{\em Panel Library}.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety.
+One interesting function:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt defpanellist(filename)}]
+%.br
+Parses a panel description file containing S-expressions written by the
+{\em Panel Editor}
+that accompanies the Panel Library and creates the described panels.
+It returns a list of panel objects.
+\end{description}
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+the {\Python} interpreter will dump core if you don't create a GL window
+before calling
+{\tt panel.mkpanel()}
+or
+{\tt panel.defpanellist()}.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt parser}}
+
+This module defines a self-contained parser for S-expressions as output
+by the Panel Editor (which is written in Scheme so it can't help writing
+S-expressions).
+The relevant function is
+{\tt parser.parse\_file(file)}
+which has a file object (not a filename!) as argument and returns a list
+of parsed S-expressions.
+Each S-expression is converted into a {\Python} list, with atoms converted
+to {\Python} strings and sub-expressions (recursively) to {\Python} lists.
+For more details, read the module file.
+
+\subsection{P.M.}
+
+\begin{verse}
+commands
+
+cmp?
+
+*cache?
+
+localtime?
+
+calendar?
+
+\_\_dict?
+\end{verse}
+
+\end{document}
diff --git a/Doc/lib/lib.tex b/Doc/lib/lib.tex
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b12e6e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/lib/lib.tex
@@ -0,0 +1,2015 @@
+% Format this file with latex.
+
+%\documentstyle[palatino,11pt,myformat]{article}
+\documentstyle[11pt,myformat]{article}
+
+\sloppy
+
+\title{\bf
+ Python Library Reference \\
+ (DRAFT)
+}
+
+\author{
+ Guido van Rossum \\
+ Dept. CST, CWI, Kruislaan 413 \\
+ 1098 SJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands \\
+ E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
+}
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\pagenumbering{roman}
+
+\maketitle
+
+\begin{abstract}
+
+\noindent
+This document describes the built-in types, exceptions and functions and
+the standard modules that come with the {\Python} system.
+It assumes basic knowledge about the {\Python} language.
+For an informal introduction to the language, see the Tutorial document.
+The Language Reference document (XXX not yet existing)
+gives a more formal reference to the language.
+
+\end{abstract}
+
+\pagebreak
+
+\tableofcontents
+
+\pagebreak
+
+\pagenumbering{arabic}
+
+\section{Introduction}
+
+The {\Python} library consists of three parts, with different levels of
+integration with the interpreter.
+Closest to the interpreter are built-in types, exceptions and functions.
+Next are built-in modules, which are written in C and linked statically
+with the interpreter.
+Finally there are standard modules that are implemented entirely in
+{\Python}, but are always available.
+For efficiency, some standard modules may become built-in modules in
+future versions of the interpreter.
+
+\section{Built-in Types, Exceptions and Functions}
+
+Names for built-in exceptions and functions are found in a separate
+read-only symbol table which cannot be modified.
+This table is searched last, so local and global user-defined names can
+override built-in names.
+Built-in types have no names but are created by syntactic constructs
+(such as constants) or built-in functions.
+They are described together here for easy reference.%
+\footnote{
+The descriptions sorely lack explanations of the exceptions that
+may be raised---this will be fixed in a future version of this
+document.
+}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Types}
+
+The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the
+interpreter.
+\subsubsection{Numeric Types}
+
+There are two numeric types: integers and floating point numbers.
+Integers are implemented using {\tt long} in C, so they have at least 32
+bits of precision.
+Floating point numbers are implemented using {\tt double} in C.
+All bets on precision are off.
+Numbers are created by numeric constants or as the result of built-in
+functions and operators.
+
+Numeric types support the following operations:
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes \\
+\hline
+{\tt abs}({\em x}) & absolute value of {\em x} & \\
+{\tt int}({\em x}) & {\em x} converted to integer & (1) \\
+{\tt float}({\em x}) & {\em x} converted to floating point & \\
+{\tt -}{\em x} & {\em x} negated & \\
+{\tt +}{\em x} & {\em x} unchanged & \\
+{\em x}{\tt +}{\em y} & sum of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt -}{\em y} & difference of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt *}{\em y} & product of {\em x} and {\em y} & \\
+{\em x}{\tt /}{\em y} & quotient of {\em x} and {\em y} & (2) \\
+{\em x}{\tt \%}{\em y} & remainder of {\em x}{\tt /}{\em y} & (3) \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+This may round or truncate as in C; see functions {\tt floor} and
+{\tt ceil} in module {\tt math}.
+\item[(2)]
+Integer division is defined as in C: the result is an integer; with
+positive operands, it truncates towards zero; with a negative operand,
+the result is unspecified.
+\item[(3)]
+Only defined for integers.
+\end{description}
+
+Mixed arithmetic is not supported; both operands must have the same type.
+Mixed comparisons return the wrong result (floats always compare smaller
+than integers).%
+\footnote{
+These restrictions are bugs in the language definitions and will be
+fixed in the future.
+}
+\subsubsection{Sequence Types}
+
+There are three sequence types: strings, lists and tuples.
+Strings constants are written in single quotes: {\tt 'xyzzy'}.
+Lists are constructed with square brackets: {\tt [a,~b,~c]}.
+Tuples are constructed by the comma operator or with an empty set of
+parentheses: {\tt a,~b,~c} or {\tt ()}.
+
+Sequence types support the following operations ({\em s} and {\em t} are
+sequences of the same type; {\em n}, {\em i} and {\em j} are integers):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes \\
+\hline
+{\tt len}({\em s}) & length of {\em s} & \\
+{\tt min}({\em s}) & smallest item of {\em s} & \\
+{\tt max}({\em s}) & largest item of {\em s} & \\
+{\em x} {\tt in} {\em s} &
+ true if an item of {\em s} is equal to {\em x} & \\
+{\em x} {\tt not} {\tt in} {\em s} &
+ false if an item of {\em s} is equal to {\em x} & \\
+{\em s}{\tt +}{\em t} & the concatenation of {\em s} and {\em t} & \\
+{\em s}{\tt *}{\em n}, {\em n}*{\em s} &
+ {\em n} copies of {\em s} concatenated & (1) \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}] & {\em i}'th item of {\em s} & \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] &
+ slice of {\em s} from {\em i} to {\em j} & (2) \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+Sequence repetition is only supported for strings.
+\item[(2)]
+The slice of $s$ from $i$ to $j$ is defined as the sequence
+of items with index $k$ such that $i \leq k < j$.
+Special rules apply for negative and omitted indices; see the Tutorial
+or the Reference Manual.
+\end{description}
+
+\paragraph{Mutable Sequence Types.}
+
+List objects support additional operations that allow in-place
+modification of the object.
+These operations would be supported by other mutable sequence types
+(when added to the language) as well.
+Strings and tuples are immutable sequence types and such objects cannot
+be modified once created.
+The following operations are defined on mutable sequence types (where
+{\em x} is an arbitrary object):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result \\
+\hline
+{\em s}[{\em i}] = {\em x} &
+ item {\em i} of {\em s} is replaced by {\em x} \\
+{\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] = {\em t} &
+ slice of {\em s} from {\em i} to {\em j} is replaced by {\em t} \\
+{\tt del} {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] &
+ same as {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em j}] = [] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt append}({\em x}) &
+ same as {\em s}[{\tt len}({\em x}):{\tt len}({\em x})] = [{\em x}] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt insert}({\em i}, {\em x}) &
+ same as {\em s}[{\em i}:{\em i}] = [{\em x}] \\
+{\em s}.{\tt sort}() &
+ the items of {\em s} are permuted to satisfy \\
+ &
+ $s[i] \leq s[j]$ for $i < j$\\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\subsubsection{Mapping Types}
+
+A
+{\em mapping}
+object maps values of one type (the key type) to arbitrary objects.
+Mappings are mutable objects.
+There is currently only one mapping type, the
+{\em dictionary}.
+A dictionary's keys are strings.
+An empty dictionary is created by the expression \verb"{}".
+An extension of this notation is used to display dictionaries when
+written (see the example below).
+
+The following operations are defined on mappings (where {\em a} is a
+mapping, {\em k} is a key and {\em x} is an arbitrary object):
+
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
+\hline
+Operation & Result & Notes\\
+\hline
+{\tt len}({\em a}) & the number of elements in {\em a} & \\
+{\em a}[{\em k}] & the item of {\em a} with key {\em k} & \\
+{\em a}[{\em k}] = {\em x} & set {\em a}[{\em k}] to {\em x} & \\
+{\tt del} {\em a}[{\em k}] & remove {\em a}[{\em k}] from {\em a} & \\
+{\em a}.{\tt keys}() & a copy of {\em a}'s list of keys & (1) \\
+{\em a}.{\tt has\_key}({\em k}) & true if {\em a} has a key {\em k} & \\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+
+\noindent
+Notes:
+\begin{description}
+\item[(1)]
+Keys are listed in random order.
+\end{description}
+
+A small example using a dictionary:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> tel = {}
+>>> tel['jack'] = 4098
+>>> tel['sape'] = 4139
+>>> tel['guido'] = 4127
+>>> tel['jack']
+4098
+>>> tel
+{'sape': 4139; 'guido': 4127; 'jack': 4098}
+>>> del tel['sape']
+>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
+>>> tel
+{'guido': 4127; 'irv': 4127; 'jack': 4098}
+>>> tel.keys()
+['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
+>>> tel.has_key('guido')
+1
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\subsubsection{Other Built-in Types}
+
+The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects.
+Most of these support only one or two operations.
+
+\paragraph{Modules.}
+
+The only operation on a module is member acces: {\em m}{\tt .}{\em name},
+where {\em m} is a module and {\em name} accesses a name defined in
+{\em m}'s symbol table.
+Module members can be assigned to.
+
+\paragraph{Classes and Class Objects.}
+
+XXX Classes will be explained at length in a later version of this
+document.
+
+\paragraph{Functions.}
+
+Function objects are created by function definitions.
+The only operation on a function object is to call it:
+{\em func}({\em optional-arguments}).
+
+Built-in functions have a different type than user-defined functions,
+but they support the same operation.
+
+\paragraph{Methods.}
+
+Methods are functions that are called using the member acces notation.
+There are two flavors: built-in methods (such as {\tt append()} on
+lists) and class member methods.
+Built-in methods are described with the types that support them.
+XXX Class member methods will be described in a later version of this
+document.
+
+\paragraph{Type Objects.}
+
+Type objects represent the various object types.
+An object's type is accessed by the built-in function
+{\tt type()}.
+There are no operations on type objects.
+
+\paragraph{The Null Object.}
+
+This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a
+value.
+It supports no operations.
+There is exactly one null object.
+
+\paragraph{File Objects.}
+
+File objects are implemented using C's
+{\em stdio}
+package and can be created with the built-in function
+{\tt open()}.
+They have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt close()}]
+Closes the file.
+A closed file cannot be read or written anymore.
+\item[{\tt read(size)}]
+Reads at most
+{\tt size}
+bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF).
+The bytes are returned as a string object.
+An empty string is returned when EOF is hit immediately.
+(For certain files, like ttys, it makes sense to continue reading after
+an EOF is hit.)
+\item[{\tt readline(size)}]
+Reads a line of at most
+{\tt size}
+bytes from the file.
+A trailing newline character, if present, is kept in the string.
+The size is optional and defaults to a large number (but not infinity).
+EOF is reported as by
+{\tt read().}
+\item[{\tt write(str)}]
+Writes a string to the file.
+Returns no value.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Exceptions}
+
+The following exceptions can be generated by the interpreter or
+built-in functions.
+Except where mentioned, they have a string argument (also known as the
+`associated value' of an exception) indicating the detailed cause of the
+error.
+The strings listed with the exception names are their values when used
+in an expression or printed.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt EOFError = 'end-of-file read'} (no argument)]
+%.br
+Raised when a built-in function ({\tt input()} or {\tt raw\_input()})
+hits an end-of-file condition (EOF) without reading any data.
+(N.B.: the {\tt read()} and {\tt readline()} methods of file objects
+return an empty string when they hit EOF.)
+\item[{\tt KeyboardInterrupt = 'end-of-file read'} (no argument)]
+%.br
+Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (normally Control-C or DEL).
+During execution, a check for interrupts is made regularly.
+Interrupts typed when a built-in function ({\tt input()} or
+{\tt raw\_input()}) is waiting for input also raise this exception.
+\item[{\tt MemoryError = 'out of memory'}]
+%.br
+Raised when an operation runs out of memory but the situation
+may still be rescued (by deleting some objects).
+\item[{\tt NameError = 'undefined name'}]
+%.br
+Raised when a name is not found.
+This applies to unqualified names, module names (on {\tt import}),
+module members and object methods.
+The string argument is the name that could not be found.
+\item[{\tt RuntimeError = 'run-time error'}]
+%.br
+Raised for a variety of reasons, e.g., division by zero or index out of
+range.
+\item[{\tt SystemError = 'system error'}]
+%.br
+Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation
+does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope.
+\item[{\tt TypeError = 'type error'}]
+%.br
+Raised when an operation or built-in function is applied to an object of
+inappropriate type.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Functions}
+
+The {\Python} interpreter has a small number of functions built into it that
+are always available.
+They are listed here in alphabetical order.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt abs(x)}]
+Returns the absolute value of a number.
+The argument may be an integer or floating point number.
+\item[{\tt dir()}]
+Without arguments, this function returns the list of names in the
+current local symbol table, sorted alphabetically.
+With a module object as argument, it returns the sorted list of names in
+that module's global symbol table.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import sys
+>>> dir()
+['sys']
+>>> dir(sys)
+['argv', 'exit', 'modules', 'path', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout']
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt divmod(a, b)}]
+%.br
+Takes two integers as arguments and returns a pair of integers
+consisting of their quotient and remainder.
+For
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+q, r = divmod(a, b)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+the invariants are:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+a = q*b + r
+abs(r) < abs(b)
+r has the same sign as b
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> divmod(100, 7)
+(14, 2)
+>>> divmod(-100, 7)
+(-15, 5)
+>>> divmod(100, -7)
+(-15, -5)
+>>> divmod(-100, -7)
+(14, -2)
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt eval(s)}]
+Takes a string as argument and parses and evaluates it as a {\Python}
+expression.
+The expression is executed using the current local and global symbol
+tables.
+Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> x = 1
+>>> eval('x+1')
+2
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt exec(s)}]
+Takes a string as argument and parses and evaluates it as a sequence of
+{\Python} statements.
+The string should end with a newline (\verb"'\n'").
+The statement is executed using the current local and global symbol
+tables.
+Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> x = 1
+>>> exec('x = x+1\n')
+>>> x
+2
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt float(x)}]
+Converts a number to floating point.
+The argument may be an integer or floating point number.
+\item[{\tt input(s)}]
+Equivalent to
+{\tt eval(raw\_input(s))}.
+As for
+{\tt raw\_input()},
+the argument is optional.
+\item[{\tt len(s)}]
+Returns the length (the number of items) of an object.
+The argument may be a sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping
+(dictionary).
+\item[{\tt max(s)}]
+Returns the largest item of a non-empty sequence (string, tuple or list).
+\item[{\tt min(s)}]
+Returns the smallest item of a non-empty sequence (string, tuple or list).
+\item[{\tt open(name, mode)}]
+%.br
+Returns a file object (described earlier under Built-in Types).
+The string arguments are the same as for stdio's
+{\tt fopen()}:
+{\tt 'r'}
+opens the file for reading,
+{\tt 'w'}
+opens it for writing (truncating an existing file),
+{\tt 'a'}
+opens it for appending.%
+\footnote{
+This function should go into a built-in module
+{\tt io}.
+}
+\item[{\tt range()}]
+This is a versatile function to create lists containing arithmetic
+progressions of integers.
+With two integer arguments, it returns the ascending sequence of
+integers starting at the first and ending one before the second
+argument.
+A single argument is used as the end point of the sequence, with 0 used
+as the starting point.
+A third argument specifies the step size; negative steps are allowed and
+work as expected, but don't specify a zero step.
+The resulting list may be empty.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> range(10)
+[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+>>> range(1, 1+10)
+[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
+>>> range(0, 30, 5)
+[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
+>>> range(0, 10, 3)
+[0, 3, 6, 9]
+>>> range(0, -10, -1)
+[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
+>>> range(0)
+[]
+>>> range(1, 0)
+[]
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt raw\_input(s)}]
+%.br
+The argument is optional; if present, it is written to standard output
+without a trailing newline.
+The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a string
+(stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.
+EOF is reported as an exception.
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> raw_input('Type anything: ')
+Type anything: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
+'Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt type(x)}]
+Returns the type of an object.
+Types are objects themselves:
+the type of a type object is its own type.
+\end{description}
+
+\section{Built-in Modules}
+
+The modules described in this section are built into the interpreter.
+They must be imported using
+{\tt import}.
+Some modules are not always available; it is a configuration option to
+provide them.
+Details are listed with the descriptions, but the best way to see if
+a module exists in a particular implementation is to attempt to import
+it.
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt sys}}
+
+This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
+interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter.
+It is always available.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt argv}]
+The list of command line arguments passed to a {\Python} script.
+{\tt sys.argv[0]}
+is the script name.
+If no script name was passed to the {\Python} interpreter,
+{\tt sys.argv}
+is empty.
+\item[{\tt exit(n)}]
+Exits from {\Python} with numeric exit status
+{\tt n}.
+This closes all open files and performs other cleanup-actions required by
+the interpreter (but
+{\em finally clauses}
+of
+{\tt try}
+statements are not executed!).
+\item[{\tt modules}]
+Gives the list of modules that have already been loaded.
+This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks.
+\item[{\tt path}]
+A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules.
+Initialized from the environment variable {\tt PYTHONPATH}, or an
+installation-dependent default.
+\item[{\tt ps1,~ps2}]
+Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the interpreter.
+These are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.
+Their initial values in this case are
+{\tt '>>> '}
+and
+{\tt '... '}.
+\item[{\tt stdin, stdout, stderr}]
+%.br
+File objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard input, output
+and error streams.
+{\tt sys.stdin}
+is used for all interpreter input except for scripts but including calls
+to
+{\tt input()}
+and
+{\tt raw\_input()}.
+{\tt sys.stdout}
+is used for the output of
+{\tt print} and expression statements
+and for the prompts of
+{\tt input()}
+and
+{\tt raw\_input()}.
+The interpreter's own prompts and its error messages are written to
+stderr.
+Assigning to
+{\tt sys.stderr}
+has no effect on the interpreter; it can be used to write error messages
+to stderr using
+{\tt print}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt math}}
+
+This module is always available.
+It provides access to the mathematical functions defined by the C
+standard.
+They are:
+{\tt acos(x)},
+{\tt asin(x)},
+{\tt atan(x)},
+{\tt atan2(x,y)},
+{\tt ceil(x)},
+{\tt cos(x)},
+{\tt cosh(x)},
+{\tt exp(x)},
+{\tt fabs(x)},
+{\tt floor(x)},
+%{\tt fmod(...)} XXX not yet
+%{\tt frexp(...)} XXX not yet
+%{\tt ldexp(...)} XXX not yet
+{\tt log(x)},
+{\tt log10(x)},
+%{\tt modf(...)} XXX not yet
+{\tt pow(x,y)},
+{\tt sin(x)},
+{\tt sinh(x)},
+{\tt sqrt(x)},
+{\tt tan(x)},
+{\tt tanh(x)}.
+
+It also defines two mathematical constants:
+{\tt pi}
+and
+{\tt e}.
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt time}}
+
+This module provides various time-related functions.
+It is always available.
+Functions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt sleep(secs)}]
+Suspends execution for the given number of seconds.
+\item[{\tt time()}]
+Returns the time in seconds since the Epoch (Thursday January 1,
+00:00:00, 1970 UCT on \UNIX\ machines).
+\end{description}
+
+\noindent
+In some versions (Amoeba, Mac) the following functions also exist:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt millisleep(msecs)}]
+Suspends execution for the given number of milliseconds.
+\item[{\tt millitimer()}]
+Returns the number of milliseconds of real time elapsed since some point
+in the past that is fixed per execution of the python interpreter (but
+may change in each following run).
+\end{description}
+
+\noindent
+The granularity of the milliseconds functions may be more than a
+millisecond (100 msecs on Amoeba, 1/60 sec on the Mac).
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt posix}}
+
+This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
+standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly diguised
+{\UNIX} interface).
+It is available in all {\Python} versions except on the Macintosh.
+Errors are reported exceptions.
+It defines the following items:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt chdir(path)}]
+Changes the current directory to
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt chmod(path, mode)}]
+Change the mode of
+{\tt path}
+to the numeric
+{\tt mode}.
+\item[{\tt environ}]
+A dictionary representing the string environment at the time
+the interpreter was started.
+(Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment of the
+interpreter.)
+For example,
+{\tt posix.environ['HOME']}
+is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to
+{\tt getenv("HOME")}
+in C.
+\item[{\tt error = 'posix.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised when an POSIX function returns an error.
+The value accompanying this exception is a pair containing the numeric
+error code from
+{\tt errno}
+and the corresponding string, as would be printed by the C function
+{\tt perror()}.
+\item[{\tt getcwd()}]
+Returns a string representing the current working directory.
+\item[{\tt link(src, dst)}]
+Creates a hard link pointing to
+{\tt src}
+named
+{\tt dst}.
+\item[{\tt listdir(path)}]
+Returns a list containing the names of the entries in the
+directory.
+The list is in arbitrary order.
+It includes the special entries
+{\tt '.'}
+and
+{\tt '..'}
+if they are present in the directory.
+\item[{\tt mkdir(path, mode)}]
+Creates a directory named
+{\tt path}
+with numeric mode
+{\tt mode}.
+\item[{\tt rename(src, dst)}]
+Renames the file or directory
+{\tt src}
+to
+{\tt dst}.
+\item[{\tt rmdir(path)}]
+Removes the directory
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt stat(path)}]
+Performs a
+{\em stat}
+system call on the given path.
+The return value is a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
+important (and portable) members of the
+{\em stat}
+structure, in the order
+{\tt st\_mode},
+{\tt st\_ino},
+{\tt st\_dev},
+{\tt st\_nlink},
+{\tt st\_uid},
+{\tt st\_gid},
+{\tt st\_size},
+{\tt st\_atime},
+{\tt st\_mtime},
+{\tt st\_ctime}.
+More items may be added at the end by some implementations.
+\item[{\tt system(command)}]
+Executes the command (a string) in a subshell.
+This is implemented by calling the Standard C function
+{\tt system()},
+and has the same limitations.
+Changes to
+{\tt posix.environ},
+{\tt sys.stdin}
+etc. are not reflected in the environment of the executed command.
+The return value is the exit status of the process as returned by
+Standard C
+{\tt system()}.
+\item[{\tt umask(mask)}]
+Sets the current numeric umask and returns the previous umask.
+\item[{\tt unlink(path)}]
+Unlinks the file
+{\tt path}.
+\item[{\tt utimes(path, (atime, mtime))}]
+%.br
+Sets the access and modified time of the file to the given values.
+(The second argument is a tuple of two items.)
+\end{description}
+
+The following functions are only available on systems that support
+symbolic links:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt lstat(path)}]
+Like
+{\tt stat()},
+but does not follow symbolic links.
+\item[{\tt readlink(path)}]
+Returns a string representing the path to which the symbolic link
+points.
+\item[{\tt symlink(src, dst)}]
+Creates a symbolic link pointing to
+{\tt src}
+named
+{\tt dst}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt stdwin}}
+
+This module defines several new object types and functions that
+provide access to the functionality of the Standard Window System
+Interface, STDWIN [CWI report CR-R8817].
+It is available on systems to which STDWIN has been ported (which is
+most systems).
+It is only available if the {\tt DISPLAY} environment variable is set
+or an explicit `{\tt -display \it displayname}' argument is passed to
+the interpreter.
+
+Functions have names that usually resemble their C STDWIN counterparts
+with the initial `w' dropped.
+Points are represented by pairs of integers; rectangles
+by pairs of points.
+For a complete description of STDWIN please refer to the documentation
+of STDWIN for C programmers (aforementioned CWI report).
+\subsubsection{Functions Defined in Module {\tt stdwin}}
+
+The following functions are defined in the {\tt stdwin} module:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt open(title)}]
+%.br
+Opens a new window whose initial title is given by the string argument.
+Returns a window object; window object methods are described below.%
+\footnote{
+The {\Python} version of STDWIN does not support draw procedures; all
+drawing requests are reported as draw events.
+}
+\item[{\tt getevent()}]
+%.br
+Waits for and returns the next event.
+An event is returned as a triple: the first element is the event
+type, a small integer; the second element is the window object to which
+the event applies, or
+{\tt None}
+if it applies to no window in particular;
+the third element is type-dependent.
+Names for event types and command codes are defined in the standard
+module
+{\tt stdwinevent}.
+\item[{\tt setdefwinpos(h, v)}]
+%.br
+Sets the default window position.
+\item[{\tt setdefwinsize(width, height)}]
+%.br
+Sets the default window size.
+\item[{\tt menucreate(title)}]
+%.br
+Creates a menu object referring to a global menu (a menu that appears in
+all windows).
+Methods of menu objects are described below.
+\item[{\tt fleep()}]
+%.br
+Causes a beep or bell (or perhaps a `visual bell' or flash, hence the
+name).
+\item[{\tt message(string)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog box containing the string.
+The user must click OK before the function returns.
+\item[{\tt askync(prompt, default)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog that prompts the user to answer a question with yes or
+no.
+The function returns 0 for no, 1 for yes.
+If the user hits the Return key, the default (which must be 0 or 1) is
+returned.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt askstr(prompt, default)}]
+%.br
+Displays a dialog that prompts the user for a string.
+If the user hits the Return key, the default string is returned.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt askfile(prompt, default, new)}]
+%.br
+Asks the user to specify a filename.
+If
+{\tt new}
+is zero it must be an existing file; otherwise, it must be a new file.
+If the user cancels the dialog, the
+{\tt KeyboardInterrupt}
+exception is raised.
+\item[{\tt setcutbuffer(i, string)}]
+%.br
+Stores the string in the system's cut buffer number
+{\tt i},
+where it can be found (for pasting) by other applications.
+On X11, there are 8 cut buffers (numbered 0..7).
+Cut buffer number 0 is the `clipboard' on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt getcutbuffer(i)}]
+%.br
+Returns the contents of the system's cut buffer number
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt rotatebutbuffers(n)}]
+%.br
+On X11, this rotates the 8 cut buffers by
+{\tt n}.
+Ignored on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt getselection(i)}]
+%.br
+Returns X11 selection number
+{\tt i.}
+Selections are not cut buffers.
+Selection numbers are defined in module
+{\tt stdwinevents}.
+Selection {\tt WS\_PRIMARY} is the
+{\em primary}
+selection (used by
+xterm,
+for instance);
+selection {\tt WS\_SECONDARY} is the
+{\em secondary}
+selection; selection {\tt WS\_CLIPBOARD} is the
+{\em clipboard}
+selection (used by
+xclipboard).
+On the Macintosh, this always returns an empty string.
+\item[{\tt resetselection(i)}]
+%.br
+Resets selection number
+{\tt i},
+if this process owns it.
+(See window method
+{\tt setselection()}).
+\item[{\tt baseline()}]
+%.br
+Return the baseline of the current font (defined by STDWIN as the
+vertical distance between the baseline and the top of the
+characters).%
+\footnote{
+There is no way yet to set the current font.
+This will change in a future version.
+}
+\item[{\tt lineheight()}]
+%.br
+Return the total line height of the current font.
+\item[{\tt textbreak(str, width)}]
+%.br
+Return the number of characters of the string that fit into a space of
+{\tt width}
+bits wide when drawn in the curent font.
+\item[{\tt textwidth(str)}]
+%.br
+Return the width in bits of the string when drawn in the current font.
+\subsubsection{Window Object Methods}
+\end{description}
+
+Window objects are created by
+{\tt stdwin.open()}.
+There is no explicit function to close a window; windows are closed when
+they are garbage-collected.
+Window objects have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt begindrawing()}]
+Returns a drawing object, whose methods (described below) allow drawing
+in the window.
+\item[{\tt change(rect)}]
+Invalidates the given rectangle; this may cause a draw event.
+\item[{\tt gettitle()}]
+Returns the window's title string.
+\item[{\tt getdocsize()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the size of the document as set by
+{\tt setdocsize()}.
+\item[{\tt getorigin()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the origin of the window with respect
+to the document.
+\item[{\tt getwinsize()}]
+Returns a pair of integers giving the size of the window.
+\item[{\tt menucreate(title)}]
+Creates a menu object referring to a local menu (a menu that appears
+only in this window).
+Methods menu objects are described below.
+\item[{\tt scroll(rect,~point)}]
+Scrolls the given rectangle by the vector given by the point.
+\item[{\tt setwincursor(name)}]
+Sets the window cursor to a cursor of the given name.
+It raises the
+{\tt Runtime\-Error}
+exception if no cursor of the given name exists.
+Suitable names are
+{\tt 'ibeam'},
+{\tt 'arrow'},
+{\tt 'cross'},
+{\tt 'watch'}
+and
+{\tt 'plus'}.
+On X11, there are many more (see
+{\tt <X11/cursorfont.h>}).
+\item[{\tt setdocsize(point)}]
+Sets the size of the drawing document.
+\item[{\tt setorigin(point)}]
+Moves the origin of the window to the given point in the document.
+\item[{\tt setselection(i, str)}]
+Attempts to set X11 selection number
+{\tt i}
+to the string
+{\tt str}.
+(See stdwin method
+{\tt getselection()}
+for the meaning of
+{\tt i}.)
+Returns true if it succeeds.
+If it succeeds, the window ``owns'' the selection until
+(a) another applications takes ownership of the selection; or
+(b) the window is deleted; or
+(c) the application clears ownership by calling
+{\tt stdwin.resetselection(i)}.
+When another application takes ownership of the selection, a
+{\tt WE\_LOST\_SEL}
+event is received for no particular window and with the selection number
+as detail.
+Ignored on the Macintosh.
+\item[{\tt settitle(title)}]
+Sets the window's title string.
+\item[{\tt settimer(dsecs)}]
+Schedules a timer event for the window in
+{\tt dsecs/10}
+seconds.
+\item[{\tt show(rect)}]
+Tries to ensure that the given rectangle of the document is visible in
+the window.
+\item[{\tt textcreate(rect)}]
+Creates a text-edit object in the document at the given rectangle.
+Methods of text-edit objects are described below.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Drawing Object Methods}
+
+Drawing objects are created exclusively by the window method
+{\tt begindrawing()}.
+Only one drawing object can exist at any given time; the drawing object
+must be deleted to finish drawing.
+No drawing object may exist when
+{\tt stdwin.getevent()}
+is called.
+Drawing objects have the following methods:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt box(rect)}]
+Draws a box around a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt circle(center, radius)}]
+%.br
+Draws a circle with given center point and radius.
+\item[{\tt elarc(center, (rh, rv), (a1, a2))}]
+%.br
+Draws an elliptical arc with given center point.
+{\tt (rh, rv)}
+gives the half sizes of the horizontal and vertical radii.
+{\tt (a1, a2)}
+gives the angles (in degrees) of the begin and end points.
+0 degrees is at 3 o'clock, 90 degrees is at 12 o'clock.
+\item[{\tt erase(rect)}]
+Erases a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt invert(rect)}]
+Inverts a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt line(p1, p2)}]
+Draws a line from point
+{\tt p1}
+to
+{\tt p2}.
+\item[{\tt paint(rect)}]
+Fills a rectangle.
+\item[{\tt text(p, str)}]
+Draws a string starting at point p (the point specifies the
+top left coordinate of the string).
+\item[{\tt shade(rect, percent)}]
+%.br
+Fills a rectangle with a shading pattern that is about
+{\tt percent}
+percent filled.
+\item[{\tt xorline(p1, p2)}]
+Draws a line in XOR mode.
+\item[{\tt baseline(), lineheight(), textbreak(), textwidth()}]
+%.br
+These functions are similar to the corresponding functions described
+above for the
+{\tt stdwin}
+module, but use the current font of the window instead of the (global)
+default font.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Menu Object Methods}
+
+A menu object represents a menu.
+The menu is destroyed when the menu object is deleted.
+The following methods are defined:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt additem(text, shortcut)}]
+%.br
+Adds a menu item with given text.
+The shortcut must be a string of length 1, or omitted (to specify no
+shortcut).
+\item[{\tt setitem(i, text)}]
+Sets the text of item number
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt enable(i, flag)}]
+Enables or disables item
+{\tt i}.
+\item[{\tt check(i, flag)}]
+Sets or clears the
+{\em check mark}
+for item
+{\tt i}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Text-edit Object Methods}
+
+A text-edit object represents a text-edit block.
+For semantics, see the STDWIN documentation for C programmers.
+The following methods exist:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt arrow(code)}]
+Passes an arrow event to the text-edit block.
+The
+{\tt code}
+must be one of
+{\tt WC\_LEFT},
+{\tt WC\_RIGHT},
+{\tt WC\_UP}
+or
+{\tt WC\_DOWN}
+(see module
+{\tt stdwinevents}).
+\item[{\tt draw(rect)}]
+Passes a draw event to the text-edit block.
+The rectangle specifies the redraw area.
+\item[{\tt event(type, window, detail)}]
+%.br
+Passes an event gotten from
+{\tt stdwin.getevent()}
+to the text-edit block.
+Returns true if the event was handled.
+\item[{\tt getfocus()}]
+Returns 2 integers representing the start and end positions of the
+focus, usable as slice indices on the string returned by
+{\tt getfocustext()}.
+\item[{\tt getfocustext()}]
+Returns the text in the focus.
+\item[{\tt getrect()}]
+Returns a rectangle giving the actual position of the text-edit block.
+(The bottom coordinate may differ from the initial position because
+the block automatically shrinks or grows to fit.)
+\item[{\tt gettext()}]
+Returns the entire text buffer.
+\item[{\tt move(rect)}]
+Specifies a new position for the text-edit block in the document.
+\item[{\tt replace(str)}]
+Replaces the focus by the given string.
+The new focus is an insert point at the end of the string.
+\item[{\tt setfocus(i,~j)}]
+Specifies the new focus.
+Out-of-bounds values are silently clipped.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt amoeba}}
+
+This module provides some object types and operations useful for
+Amoeba applications.
+It is only available on systems that support Amoeba operations.
+RPC errors and other Amoeba errors are reported as the exception
+{\tt amoeba.error = 'amoeba.error'}.
+The module
+{\tt amoeba}
+defines the following items:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt name\_append(path,~cap)}]
+%.br
+Stores a capability in the Amoeba directory tree.
+Arguments are the pathname (a string) and the capability (a capability
+object as returned by
+{\tt name\_lookup()}).
+\item[{\tt name\_delete(path)}]
+%.br
+Deletes a capability from the Amoeba directory tree.
+Argument is the pathname.
+\item[{\tt name\_lookup(path)}]
+%.br
+Looks up a capability.
+Argument is the pathname.
+Returns a
+{\em capability}
+object, to which various interesting operations apply, described below.
+\item[{\tt name\_replace(path,~cap)}]
+%.br
+Replaces a capability in the Amoeba directory tree.
+Arguments are the pathname and the new capability.
+(This differs from
+{\tt name\_append()}
+in the behavior when the pathname already exists:
+{\tt name\_append()}
+finds this an error while
+{\tt name\_replace()}
+allows it, as its name suggests.)
+\item[{\tt capv}]
+A table representing the capability environment at the time the
+interpreter was started.
+(Alas, modifying this table does not affect the capability environment
+of the interpreter.)
+For example,
+{\tt amoeba.capv['ROOT']}
+is the capability of your root directory, similar to
+{\tt getcap("ROOT")}
+in C.
+\item[{\tt error = 'amoeba.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised when an Amoeba function returns an error.
+The value accompanying this exception is a pair containing the numeric
+error code and the corresponding string, as returned by the C function
+{\tt err\_why()}.
+\item[{\tt timeout(msecs)}]
+%.br
+Sets the transaction timeout, in milliseconds.
+Returns the previous timeout.
+Initially, the timeout is set to 2 seconds by the {\Python} interpreter.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsubsection{Capability Operations}
+
+Capabilities are written in a convenient ASCII format, also used by the
+Amoeba utilities
+{\em c2a}(U)
+and
+{\em a2c}(U).
+For example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> amoeba.name_lookup('/profile/cap')
+aa:1c:95:52:6a:fa/14(ff)/8e:ba:5b:8:11:1a
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+The following methods are defined for capability objects.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt dir\_list()}]
+Returns a list of the names of the entries in an Amoeba directory.
+\item[{\tt b\_read(offset, maxsize)}]
+%.br
+Reads (at most)
+{\tt maxsize}
+bytes from a bullet file at offset
+{\tt offset.}
+The data is returned as a string.
+EOF is reported as an empty string.
+\item[{\tt b\_size()}]
+Returns the size of a bullet file.
+\item[{\tt dir\_append(), dir\_delete(), dir\_lookup(), dir\_replace()}]
+%.br
+Like the corresponding
+{\tt name\_*}
+functions, but with a path relative to the capability.
+(For paths beginning with a slash the capability is ignored, since this
+is the defined semantics for Amoeba.)
+\item[{\tt std\_info()}]
+Returns the standard info string of the object.
+\item[{\tt tod\_gettime()}]
+Returns the time (in seconds since the Epoch, in UCT, as for POSIX) from
+a time server.
+\item[{\tt tod\_settime(t)}]
+Sets the time kept by a time server.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt audio}}
+
+This module provides rudimentary access to the audio I/O device
+{\tt /dev/audio}
+on the Silicon Graphics Personal IRIS; see audio(7).
+It supports the following operations:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt setoutgain(n)}]
+Sets the output gain (0-255).
+\item[{\tt getoutgain()}]
+Returns the output gain.
+\item[{\tt setrate(n)}]
+Sets the sampling rate: 1=32K/sec, 2=16K/sec, 3=8K/sec.
+\item[{\tt setduration(n)}]
+Sets the `sound duration' in units of 1/100 seconds.
+\item[{\tt read(n)}]
+Reads a chunk of
+{\tt n}
+sampled bytes from the audio input (line in or microphone).
+The chunk is returned as a string of length n.
+Each byte encodes one sample as a signed 8-bit quantity using linear
+encoding.
+This string can be converted to numbers using {\tt chr2num()} described
+below.
+\item[{\tt write(buf)}]
+Writes a chunk of samples to the audio output (speaker).
+\end{description}
+
+These operations support asynchronous audio I/O:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt start\_recording(n)}]
+%.br
+Starts a second thread (a process with shared memory) that begins reading
+{\tt n}
+bytes from the audio device.
+The main thread immediately continues.
+\item[{\tt wait\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Waits for the second thread to finish and returns the data read.
+\item[{\tt stop\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Makes the second thread stop reading as soon as possible.
+Returns the data read so far.
+\item[{\tt poll\_recording()}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the second thread has finished reading (so
+{\tt wait\_recording()} would return the data without delay).
+\item[{\tt start\_playing(chunk)}, {\tt wait\_playing()},
+{\tt stop\_playing()}, {\tt poll\_playing()}]
+%.br
+Similar but for output.
+{\tt stop\_playing()}
+returns a lower bound for the number of bytes actually played (not very
+accurate).
+\end{description}
+
+The following operations do not affect the audio device but are
+implemented in C for efficiency:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt amplify(buf, f1, f2)}]
+%.br
+Amplifies a chunk of samples by a variable factor changing from
+{\tt f1}/256 to {\tt f2}/256.
+Negative factors are allowed.
+Resulting values that are to large to fit in a byte are clipped.
+\item[{\tt reverse(buf)}]
+%.br
+Returns a chunk of samples backwards.
+\item[{\tt add(buf1, buf2)}]
+%.br
+Bytewise adds two chunks of samples.
+Bytes that exceed the range are clipped.
+If one buffer shorter, it is assumed to be padded with zeros.
+\item[{\tt chr2num(buf)}]
+%.br
+Converts a string of sampled bytes as returned by {\tt read()} into
+a list containing the numeric values of the samples.
+\item[{\tt num2chr(list)}]
+%.br
+Converts a list as returned by
+{\tt chr2num()}
+back to a buffer acceptable by
+{\tt write()}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt gl}}
+
+This module provides access to the Silicon Graphics
+{\em Graphics Library}.
+It is available only on Silicon Graphics machines.
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+Some illegal calls to the GL library cause the {\Python} interpreter to dump
+core.
+In particular, the use of most GL calls is unsafe before the first
+window is opened.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety, but the
+following should help you to get started.
+The parameter conventions for the C functions are translated to {\Python} as
+follows:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item
+All (short, long, unsigned) int values are represented by {\Python}
+integers.
+\item
+All float and double values are represented by {\Python} floating point
+numbers.
+In most cases, {\Python} integers are also allowed.
+\item
+All arrays are represented by one-dimensional {\Python} lists.
+In most cases, tuples are also allowed.
+\item
+All string and character arguments are represented by {\Python} strings,
+e.g.,
+{\tt winopen('Hi~There!')}
+and
+{\tt rotate(900,~'z')}.
+\item
+All (short, long, unsigned) integer arguments or return values that are
+only used to specify the length of an array argument are omitted.
+For example, the C call
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+lmdef(deftype, index, np, props)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is translated to {\Python} as
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+lmdef(deftype, index, props)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item
+Output arguments are omitted from the argument list; they are
+transmitted as function return values instead.
+If more than one value must be returned, the return value is a tuple.
+If the C function has both a regular return value (that is not omitted
+because of the previous rule) and an output argument, the return value
+comes first in the tuple.
+Examples: the C call
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+getmcolor(i, &red, &green, &blue)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is translated to {\Python} as
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+red, green, blue = getmcolor(i)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\end{itemize}
+
+The following functions are non-standard or have special argument
+conventions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt varray()}]
+Equivalent to but faster than a number of
+{\tt v3d()}
+calls.
+The argument is a list (or tuple) of points.
+Each point must be a tuple of coordinates (x, y, z) or (x, y).
+The points may be 2- or 3-dimensional but must all have the
+same dimension.
+Float and int values may be mixed however.
+The points are always converted to 3D double precision points
+by assuming z=0.0 if necessary (as indicated in the man page),
+and for each point
+{\tt v3d()}
+is called.
+\item[{\tt nvarray()}]
+Equivalent to but faster than a number of
+{\tt n3f}
+and
+{\tt v3f}
+calls.
+The argument is an array (list or tuple) of pairs of normals and points.
+Each pair is a tuple of a point and a normal for that point.
+Each point or normal must be a tuple of coordinates (x, y, z).
+Three coordinates must be given.
+Float and int values may be mixed.
+For each pair,
+{\tt n3f()}
+is called for the normal, and then
+{\tt v3f()}
+is called for the point.
+\item[{\tt vnarray()}]
+Similar to
+{\tt nvarray()}
+but the pairs have the point first and the normal second.
+\item[{\tt nurbssurface(s\_k[], t\_k[], ctl[][], s\_ord, t\_ord, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a nurbs surface.
+The dimensions of
+{\tt ctl[][]}
+are computed as follows:
+{\tt [len(s\_k)~-~s\_ord]},
+{\tt [len(t\_k)~-~t\_ord]}.
+\item[{\tt nurbscurve(knots, ctlpoints, order, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a nurbs curve.
+The length of ctlpoints is
+{\tt len(knots)~-~order}.
+\item[{\tt pwlcurve(points, type)}]
+%.br
+Defines a piecewise-linear curve.
+{\tt points}
+is a list of points.
+{\tt type}
+must be
+{\tt N\_ST}.
+\item[{\tt pick(n), select(n)}]
+%.br
+The only argument to these functions specifies the desired size of the
+pick or select buffer.
+\item[{\tt endpick(), endselect()}]
+%.br
+These functions have no arguments.
+They return a list of integers representing the used part of the
+pick/select buffer.
+No method is provided to detect buffer overrun.
+\end{description}
+
+Here is a tiny but complete example GL program in {\Python}:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+import gl, GL, time
+
+def main():
+ gl.foreground()
+ gl.prefposition(500, 900, 500, 900)
+ w = gl.winopen('CrissCross')
+ gl.ortho2(0.0, 400.0, 0.0, 400.0)
+ gl.color(GL.WHITE)
+ gl.clear()
+ gl.color(GL.RED)
+ gl.bgnline()
+ gl.v2f(0.0, 0.0)
+ gl.v2f(400.0, 400.0)
+ gl.endline()
+ gl.bgnline()
+ gl.v2f(400.0, 0.0)
+ gl.v2f(0.0, 400.0)
+ gl.endline()
+ time.sleep(5)
+
+main()
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+
+\subsection{Built-in Module {\tt pnl}}
+
+This module provides access to the
+{\em Panel Library}
+built by NASA Ames (write to
+{\tt panel-request@nas.nasa.gov}
+to get it).
+All access to it should be done through the standard module
+{\tt panel},
+which transparantly exports most functions from
+{\tt pnl}
+but redefines
+{\tt pnl.dopanel()}.
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+the {\Python} interpreter will dump core if you don't create a GL window
+before calling
+{\tt pnl.mkpanel()}.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety.
+
+\section{Standard Modules}
+
+The following standard modules are defined.
+They are available in one of the directories in the default module
+search path (try printing
+{\tt sys.path}
+to find out the default search path.)
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt string}}
+
+This module defines some constants useful for checking character
+classes, some exceptions, and some useful string functions.
+The constants are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt digits}]
+The string
+{\tt '0123456789'}.
+\item[{\tt hexdigits}]
+The string
+{\tt '0123456789abcdefABCDEF'}.
+\item[{\tt letters}]
+The concatenation of the strings
+{\tt lowercase}
+and
+{\tt uppercase}
+described below.
+\item[{\tt lowercase}]
+The string
+{\tt 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'}.
+\item[{\tt octdigits}]
+The string
+{\tt '01234567'}.
+\item[{\tt uppercase}]
+The string
+{\tt 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'}.
+\item[{\tt whitespace}]
+A string containing all characters that are considered whitespace,
+i.e.,
+space, tab and newline.
+This definition is used by
+{\tt split()}
+and
+{\tt strip()}.
+\end{description}
+
+The exceptions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt atoi\_error = 'non-numeric argument to string.atoi'}]
+%.br
+Exception raised by
+{\tt atoi}
+when a non-numeric string argument is detected.
+The exception argument is the offending string.
+\item[{\tt index\_error = 'substring not found in string.index'}]
+%.br
+Exception raised by
+{\tt index}
+when
+{\tt sub}
+is not found.
+The argument are the offending arguments to index: {\tt (s, sub)}.
+\end{description}
+
+The functions are:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt atoi(s)}]
+Converts a string to a number.
+The string must consist of one or more digits, optionally preceded by a
+sign ({\tt '+'} or {\tt '-'}).
+\item[{\tt index(s, sub)}]
+Returns the lowest index in
+{\tt s}
+where the substring
+{\tt sub}
+is found.
+\item[{\tt lower(s)}]
+Convert letters to lower case.
+\item[{\tt split(s)}]
+Returns a list of the whitespace-delimited words of the string
+{\tt s}.
+\item[{\tt splitfields(s, sep)}]
+%.br
+Returns a list containing the fields of the string
+{\tt s},
+using the string
+{\tt sep}
+as a separator.
+The list will have one more items than the number of non-overlapping
+occurrences of the separator in the string.
+Thus,
+{\tt string.splitfields(s, ' ')}
+is not the same as
+{\tt string.split(s)},
+as the latter only returns non-empty words.
+\item[{\tt strip(s)}]
+Removes leading and trailing whitespace from the string
+{\tt s}.
+\item[{\tt swapcase(s)}]
+Converts lower case letters to upper case and vice versa.
+\item[{\tt upper(s)}]
+Convert letters to upper case.
+\item[{\tt ljust(s, width), rjust(s, width), center(s, width)}]
+%.br
+These functions respectively left-justify, right-justify and center a
+string in a field of given width.
+They return a string that is at least
+{\tt width}
+characters wide, created by padding the string
+{\tt s}
+with spaces until the given width on the right, left or both sides.
+The string is never truncated.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt path}}
+
+This module implements some useful functions on POSIX pathnames.
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt basename(p)}]
+Returns the base name of pathname
+{\tt p}.
+This is the second half of the pair returned by
+{\tt path.split(p)}.
+\item[{\tt cat(p, q)}]
+Performs intelligent pathname concatenation on paths
+{\tt p}
+and
+{\tt q}:
+If
+{\tt q}
+is an absolute path, the return value is
+{\tt q}.
+Otherwise, the concatenation of
+{\tt p}
+and
+{\tt q}
+is returned, with a slash ({\tt '/'}) inserted unless
+{\tt p}
+is empty or ends in a slash.
+\item[{\tt commonprefix(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the longest string that is a prefix of all strings in
+{\tt list}.
+If
+{\tt list}
+is empty, the empty string ({\tt ''}) is returned.
+\item[{\tt exists(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to an existing path.
+\item[{\tt isdir(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to an existing directory.
+\item[{\tt islink(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+refers to a directory entry that is a symbolic link.
+Always false if symbolic links are not supported.
+\item[{\tt ismount(p)}]
+Returns true if
+{\tt p}
+is an absolute path that occurs in the mount table as output by the
+{\tt /etc/mount}
+utility.
+This output is read once when the function is used for the first
+time.%
+\footnote{
+Is there a better way to check for mount points?
+}
+\item[{\tt split(p)}]
+Returns a pair
+{\tt (head,~tail)}
+such that
+{\tt tail}
+contains no slashes and
+{\tt path.cat(head, tail)}
+is equal to
+{\tt p}.
+\item[{\tt walk(p, visit, arg)}]
+%.br
+Calls the function
+{\tt visit}
+with arguments
+{\tt (arg, dirname, names)}
+for each directory in the directory tree rooted at
+{\tt p}
+(including
+{\tt p}
+itself, if it is a directory).
+The argument
+{\tt dirname}
+specifies the visited directory, the argument
+{\tt names}
+lists the files in the directory (gotten from
+{\tt posix.listdir(dirname)}).
+The
+{\tt visit}
+function may modify
+{\tt names}
+to influence the set of directories visited below
+{\tt dirname},
+e.g.,
+to avoid visiting certain parts of the tree.
+(The object referred to by
+{\tt names}
+must be modified in place, using
+{\tt del}
+or slice assignment.)
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt getopt}}
+
+This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
+{\tt sys.argv}.
+It uses the same conventions as the {\UNIX}
+{\tt getopt()}
+function.
+It defines the function
+{\tt getopt.getopt(args, options)}
+and the exception
+{\tt getopt.error}.
+
+The first argument to
+{\tt getopt()}
+is the argument list passed to the script with its first element
+chopped off (i.e.,
+{\tt sys.argv[1:]}).
+The second argument is the string of option letters that the
+script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument
+followed by a colon (i.e., the same format that {\UNIX}
+{\tt getopt()}
+uses).
+The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of
+option-and-value pairs; the second is the list of program arguments
+left after the option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of the
+first argument).
+Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element,
+prefixed with a hyphen (e.g.,
+{\tt '-x'}),
+and the option argument as its second element, or an empty string if the
+option has no argument.
+The options occur in the list in the same order in which they were
+found, thus allowing multiple occurrences.
+Example:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import getopt, string
+>>> args = string.split('-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2')
+>>> args
+['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
+>>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
+>>> optlist
+[('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
+>>> args
+['a1', 'a2']
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+The exception
+{\tt getopt.error = 'getopt error'}
+is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or
+when an option requiring an argument is given none.
+The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
+error.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt rand}}
+
+This module implements a pseudo-random number generator similar to
+{\tt rand()}
+in C.
+It defines the following functions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt rand()}]
+Returns an integer random number in the range [0 ... 32768).
+\item[{\tt choice(s)}]
+Returns a random element from the sequence (string, tuple or list)
+{\tt s.}
+\item[{\tt srand(seed)}]
+Initializes the random number generator with the given integral seed.
+When the module is first imported, the random number is initialized with
+the current time.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt whrandom}}
+
+This module implements a Wichmann-Hill pseudo-random number generator.
+It defines the following functions:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt random()}]
+Returns the next random floating point number in the range [0.0 ... 1.0).
+\item[{\tt seed(x, y, z)}]
+Initializes the random number generator from the integers
+{\tt x},
+{\tt y}
+and
+{\tt z}.
+When the module is first imported, the random number is initialized
+using values derived from the current time.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt stdwinevents}}
+
+This module defines constants used by STDWIN for event types
+({\tt WE\_ACTIVATE} etc.), command codes ({\tt WC\_LEFT} etc.)
+and selection types ({\tt WS\_PRIMARY} etc.).
+Read the file for details.
+Suggested usage is
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> from stdwinevents import *
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt rect}}
+
+This module contains useful operations on rectangles.
+A rectangle is defined as in module
+{\tt stdwin}:
+a pair of points, where a point is a pair of integers.
+For example, the rectangle
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+(10, 20), (90, 80)
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+is a rectangle whose left, top, right and bottom edges are 10, 20, 90
+and 80, respectively.
+Note that the positive vertical axis points down (as in
+{\tt stdwin}).
+
+The module defines the following objects:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt error = 'rect.error'}]
+%.br
+The exception raised by functions in this module when they detect an
+error.
+The exception argument is a string describing the problem in more
+detail.
+\item[{\tt empty}]
+%.br
+The rectangle returned when some operations return an empty result.
+This makes it possible to quickly check whether a result is empty:
+\begin{code}\begin{verbatim}
+>>> import rect
+>>> r1 = (10, 20), (90, 80)
+>>> r2 = (0, 0), (10, 20)
+>>> r3 = rect.intersect(r1, r2)
+>>> if r3 is rect.empty: print 'Empty intersection'
+Empty intersection
+>>>
+\end{verbatim}\end{code}
+\item[{\tt is\_empty(r)}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the given rectangle is empty.
+A rectangle
+{\em (left,~top), (right,~bottom)}
+is empty if
+{\em left~$\geq$~right}
+or
+{\em top~$\leq$~bottom}.
+\item[{\tt intersect(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the intersection of all rectangles in the list argument.
+It may also be called with a tuple argument or with two or more
+rectangles as arguments.
+Raises
+{\tt rect.error}
+if the list is empty.
+Returns
+{\tt rect.empty}
+if the intersection of the rectangles is empty.
+\item[{\tt union(list)}]
+%.br
+Returns the smallest rectangle that contains all non-empty rectangles in
+the list argument.
+It may also be called with a tuple argument or with two or more
+rectangles as arguments.
+Returns
+{\tt rect.empty}
+if the list is empty or all its rectangles are empty.
+\item[{\tt pointinrect(point, rect)}]
+%.br
+Returns true if the point is inside the rectangle.
+By definition, a point
+{\em (h,~v)}
+is inside a rectangle
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (right,~bottom)}
+if
+{\em left~$\leq$~h~$<$~right}
+and
+{\em top~$\leq$~v~$<$~bottom}.
+\item[{\tt inset(rect, (dh, dv))}]
+%.br
+Returns a rectangle that lies inside the
+{\tt rect}
+argument by
+{\tt dh}
+pixels horizontally
+and
+{\tt dv}
+pixels
+vertically.
+If
+{\tt dh}
+or
+{\tt dv}
+is negative, the result lies outside
+{\tt rect}.
+\item[{\tt rect2geom(rect)}]
+%.br
+Converts a rectangle to geometry representation:
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (width,~height)}.
+\item[{\tt geom2rect(geom)}]
+%.br
+Converts a rectangle given in geometry representation back to the
+standard rectangle representation
+{\em (left,~top),}
+{\em (right,~bottom)}.
+\end{description}
+
+\subsection{Standard Modules {\tt GL} and {\tt DEVICE}}
+
+These modules define the constants used by the Silicon Graphics
+{\em Graphics Library}
+that C programmers find in the header files
+{\tt <gl/gl.h>}
+and
+{\tt <gl/device.h>}.
+Read the module files for details.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt panel}}
+
+This module should be used instead of the built-in module
+{\tt pnl}
+to interface with the
+{\em Panel Library}.
+
+The module is too large to document here in its entirety.
+One interesting function:
+\begin{description}
+\item[{\tt defpanellist(filename)}]
+%.br
+Parses a panel description file containing S-expressions written by the
+{\em Panel Editor}
+that accompanies the Panel Library and creates the described panels.
+It returns a list of panel objects.
+\end{description}
+
+{\bf Warning:}
+the {\Python} interpreter will dump core if you don't create a GL window
+before calling
+{\tt panel.mkpanel()}
+or
+{\tt panel.defpanellist()}.
+
+\subsection{Standard Module {\tt parser}}
+
+This module defines a self-contained parser for S-expressions as output
+by the Panel Editor (which is written in Scheme so it can't help writing
+S-expressions).
+The relevant function is
+{\tt parser.parse\_file(file)}
+which has a file object (not a filename!) as argument and returns a list
+of parsed S-expressions.
+Each S-expression is converted into a {\Python} list, with atoms converted
+to {\Python} strings and sub-expressions (recursively) to {\Python} lists.
+For more details, read the module file.
+
+\subsection{P.M.}
+
+\begin{verse}
+commands
+
+cmp?
+
+*cache?
+
+localtime?
+
+calendar?
+
+\_\_dict?
+\end{verse}
+
+\end{document}
diff --git a/Doc/myformat.sty b/Doc/myformat.sty
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..623316e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/myformat.sty
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+% Style parameters and macros used by all documents here
+
+% Page lay-out parameters
+\textwidth = 150mm
+\textheight = 240mm
+\topmargin = -11mm
+\oddsidemargin = 5mm
+\evensidemargin = 5mm
+
+% Macros for e.g. and E.g. if you want them italicized:
+% \newcommand{\eg}{{\it e.g.}}
+% \newcommand{\Eg}{{\it E.g.}}
+% If you don't want them italicized:
+\newcommand{\eg}{e.g.}
+\newcommand{\Eg}{E.g.}
+
+% Frequently used system names
+\newcommand{\Python}{Python}
+\newcommand{\UNIX}{U{\sc nix}}
+
+% Code environment (use together with verbatim!)
+\newenvironment{code}%
+{\nopagebreak\begin{list}{\nopagebreak}{\nopagebreak}\nopagebreak}%
+{\nopagebreak\end{list}\nopagebreak}