/*

Unicode implementation based on original code by Fredrik Lundh,
modified by Marc-Andre Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>.

Major speed upgrades to the method implementations at the Reykjavik
NeedForSpeed sprint, by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke.

Copyright (c) Corporation for National Research Initiatives.

--------------------------------------------------------------------
The original string type implementation is:

  Copyright (c) 1999 by Secret Labs AB
  Copyright (c) 1999 by Fredrik Lundh

By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all
copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice
appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs
AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
distribution of the software without specific, written prior
permission.

SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
--------------------------------------------------------------------

*/

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include "Python.h"
#include "ucnhash.h"
#include "bytes_methods.h"
#include "stringlib/eq.h"

#ifdef MS_WINDOWS
#include <windows.h>
#endif

/*[clinic input]
class str "PyUnicodeObject *" "&PyUnicode_Type"
[clinic start generated code]*/
/*[clinic end generated code: output=da39a3ee5e6b4b0d input=604e916854800fa8]*/

/* --- Globals ------------------------------------------------------------

NOTE: In the interpreter's initialization phase, some globals are currently
      initialized dynamically as needed. In the process Unicode objects may
      be created before the Unicode type is ready.

*/


#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif

/* Maximum code point of Unicode 6.0: 0x10ffff (1,114,111) */
#define MAX_UNICODE 0x10ffff

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
#  define _PyUnicode_CHECK(op) _PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(op, 0)
#else
#  define _PyUnicode_CHECK(op) PyUnicode_Check(op)
#endif

#define _PyUnicode_UTF8(op)                             \
    (((PyCompactUnicodeObject*)(op))->utf8)
#define PyUnicode_UTF8(op)                              \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(op)),                    \
     PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(op) ?                   \
         ((char*)((PyASCIIObject*)(op) + 1)) :          \
         _PyUnicode_UTF8(op))
#define _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(op)                      \
    (((PyCompactUnicodeObject*)(op))->utf8_length)
#define PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(op)                       \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(op)),                    \
     PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(op) ?                   \
         ((PyASCIIObject*)(op))->length :               \
         _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(op))
#define _PyUnicode_WSTR(op)                             \
    (((PyASCIIObject*)(op))->wstr)
#define _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(op)                      \
    (((PyCompactUnicodeObject*)(op))->wstr_length)
#define _PyUnicode_LENGTH(op)                           \
    (((PyASCIIObject *)(op))->length)
#define _PyUnicode_STATE(op)                            \
    (((PyASCIIObject *)(op))->state)
#define _PyUnicode_HASH(op)                             \
    (((PyASCIIObject *)(op))->hash)
#define _PyUnicode_KIND(op)                             \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     ((PyASCIIObject *)(op))->state.kind)
#define _PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(op)                       \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     ((PyASCIIObject *)(op))->length)
#define _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(op)                         \
    (((PyUnicodeObject*)(op))->data.any)

#undef PyUnicode_READY
#define PyUnicode_READY(op)                             \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     (PyUnicode_IS_READY(op) ?                          \
      0 :                                               \
      _PyUnicode_Ready(op)))

#define _PyUnicode_SHARE_UTF8(op)                       \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     assert(!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(op)),           \
     (_PyUnicode_UTF8(op) == PyUnicode_DATA(op)))
#define _PyUnicode_SHARE_WSTR(op)                       \
    (assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(op)),                      \
     (_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) == PyUnicode_DATA(op)))

/* true if the Unicode object has an allocated UTF-8 memory block
   (not shared with other data) */
#define _PyUnicode_HAS_UTF8_MEMORY(op)                  \
    ((!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(op)                   \
      && _PyUnicode_UTF8(op)                            \
      && _PyUnicode_UTF8(op) != PyUnicode_DATA(op)))

/* true if the Unicode object has an allocated wstr memory block
   (not shared with other data) */
#define _PyUnicode_HAS_WSTR_MEMORY(op)                  \
    ((_PyUnicode_WSTR(op) &&                            \
      (!PyUnicode_IS_READY(op) ||                       \
       _PyUnicode_WSTR(op) != PyUnicode_DATA(op))))

/* Generic helper macro to convert characters of different types.
   from_type and to_type have to be valid type names, begin and end
   are pointers to the source characters which should be of type
   "from_type *".  to is a pointer of type "to_type *" and points to the
   buffer where the result characters are written to. */
#define _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(from_type, to_type, begin, end, to) \
    do {                                                \
        to_type *_to = (to_type *)(to);                \
        const from_type *_iter = (from_type *)(begin);  \
        const from_type *_end = (from_type *)(end);     \
        Py_ssize_t n = (_end) - (_iter);                \
        const from_type *_unrolled_end =                \
            _iter + _Py_SIZE_ROUND_DOWN(n, 4);          \
        while (_iter < (_unrolled_end)) {               \
            _to[0] = (to_type) _iter[0];                \
            _to[1] = (to_type) _iter[1];                \
            _to[2] = (to_type) _iter[2];                \
            _to[3] = (to_type) _iter[3];                \
            _iter += 4; _to += 4;                       \
        }                                               \
        while (_iter < (_end))                          \
            *_to++ = (to_type) *_iter++;                \
    } while (0)

#ifdef MS_WINDOWS
   /* On Windows, overallocate by 50% is the best factor */
#  define OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR 2
#else
   /* On Linux, overallocate by 25% is the best factor */
#  define OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR 4
#endif

/* This dictionary holds all interned unicode strings.  Note that references
   to strings in this dictionary are *not* counted in the string's ob_refcnt.
   When the interned string reaches a refcnt of 0 the string deallocation
   function will delete the reference from this dictionary.

   Another way to look at this is that to say that the actual reference
   count of a string is:  s->ob_refcnt + (s->state ? 2 : 0)
*/
static PyObject *interned = NULL;

/* The empty Unicode object is shared to improve performance. */
static PyObject *unicode_empty = NULL;

#define _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY()                      \
    do {                                                \
        if (unicode_empty != NULL)                      \
            Py_INCREF(unicode_empty);                   \
        else {                                          \
            unicode_empty = PyUnicode_New(0, 0);        \
            if (unicode_empty != NULL) {                \
                Py_INCREF(unicode_empty);               \
                assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode_empty, 1)); \
            }                                           \
        }                                               \
    } while (0)

#define _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY()                      \
    do {                                                \
        _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();                     \
        return unicode_empty;                           \
    } while (0)

/* Forward declaration */
static inline int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, Py_UCS4 ch);

/* List of static strings. */
static _Py_Identifier *static_strings = NULL;

/* Single character Unicode strings in the Latin-1 range are being
   shared as well. */
static PyObject *unicode_latin1[256] = {NULL};

/* Fast detection of the most frequent whitespace characters */
const unsigned char _Py_ascii_whitespace[] = {
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
/*     case 0x0009: * CHARACTER TABULATION */
/*     case 0x000A: * LINE FEED */
/*     case 0x000B: * LINE TABULATION */
/*     case 0x000C: * FORM FEED */
/*     case 0x000D: * CARRIAGE RETURN */
    0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
/*     case 0x001C: * FILE SEPARATOR */
/*     case 0x001D: * GROUP SEPARATOR */
/*     case 0x001E: * RECORD SEPARATOR */
/*     case 0x001F: * UNIT SEPARATOR */
    0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1,
/*     case 0x0020: * SPACE */
    1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,

    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
};

/* forward */
static PyUnicodeObject *_PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t length);
static PyObject* get_latin1_char(unsigned char ch);
static int unicode_modifiable(PyObject *unicode);


static PyObject *
_PyUnicode_FromUCS1(const Py_UCS1 *s, Py_ssize_t size);
static PyObject *
_PyUnicode_FromUCS2(const Py_UCS2 *s, Py_ssize_t size);
static PyObject *
_PyUnicode_FromUCS4(const Py_UCS4 *s, Py_ssize_t size);

static PyObject *
unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(const char *errors,
       PyObject **errorHandler,const char *encoding, const char *reason,
       PyObject *unicode, PyObject **exceptionObject,
       Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos, Py_ssize_t *newpos);

static void
raise_encode_exception(PyObject **exceptionObject,
                       const char *encoding,
                       PyObject *unicode,
                       Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                       const char *reason);

/* Same for linebreaks */
static const unsigned char ascii_linebreak[] = {
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
/*         0x000A, * LINE FEED */
/*         0x000B, * LINE TABULATION */
/*         0x000C, * FORM FEED */
/*         0x000D, * CARRIAGE RETURN */
    0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
/*         0x001C, * FILE SEPARATOR */
/*         0x001D, * GROUP SEPARATOR */
/*         0x001E, * RECORD SEPARATOR */
    0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,

    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
    0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
};

#include "clinic/unicodeobject.c.h"

typedef enum {
    _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN=0,
    _Py_ERROR_STRICT,
    _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE,
    _Py_ERROR_REPLACE,
    _Py_ERROR_IGNORE,
    _Py_ERROR_BACKSLASHREPLACE,
    _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEPASS,
    _Py_ERROR_XMLCHARREFREPLACE,
    _Py_ERROR_OTHER
} _Py_error_handler;

static _Py_error_handler
get_error_handler(const char *errors)
{
    if (errors == NULL || strcmp(errors, "strict") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_STRICT;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "surrogateescape") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "replace") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_REPLACE;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "ignore") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_IGNORE;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "backslashreplace") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_BACKSLASHREPLACE;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "surrogatepass") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEPASS;
    }
    if (strcmp(errors, "xmlcharrefreplace") == 0) {
        return _Py_ERROR_XMLCHARREFREPLACE;
    }
    return _Py_ERROR_OTHER;
}

/* The max unicode value is always 0x10FFFF while using the PEP-393 API.
   This function is kept for backward compatibility with the old API. */
Py_UNICODE
PyUnicode_GetMax(void)
{
#ifdef Py_UNICODE_WIDE
    return 0x10FFFF;
#else
    /* This is actually an illegal character, so it should
       not be passed to unichr. */
    return 0xFFFF;
#endif
}

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
int
_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(PyObject *op, int check_content)
{
    PyASCIIObject *ascii;
    unsigned int kind;

    assert(PyUnicode_Check(op));

    ascii = (PyASCIIObject *)op;
    kind = ascii->state.kind;

    if (ascii->state.ascii == 1 && ascii->state.compact == 1) {
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
        assert(ascii->state.ready == 1);
    }
    else {
        PyCompactUnicodeObject *compact = (PyCompactUnicodeObject *)op;
        void *data;

        if (ascii->state.compact == 1) {
            data = compact + 1;
            assert(kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
                   || kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
                   || kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
            assert(ascii->state.ascii == 0);
            assert(ascii->state.ready == 1);
            assert (compact->utf8 != data);
        }
        else {
            PyUnicodeObject *unicode = (PyUnicodeObject *)op;

            data = unicode->data.any;
            if (kind == PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND) {
                assert(ascii->length == 0);
                assert(ascii->hash == -1);
                assert(ascii->state.compact == 0);
                assert(ascii->state.ascii == 0);
                assert(ascii->state.ready == 0);
                assert(ascii->state.interned == SSTATE_NOT_INTERNED);
                assert(ascii->wstr != NULL);
                assert(data == NULL);
                assert(compact->utf8 == NULL);
            }
            else {
                assert(kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
                       || kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
                       || kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
                assert(ascii->state.compact == 0);
                assert(ascii->state.ready == 1);
                assert(data != NULL);
                if (ascii->state.ascii) {
                    assert (compact->utf8 == data);
                    assert (compact->utf8_length == ascii->length);
                }
                else
                    assert (compact->utf8 != data);
            }
        }
        if (kind != PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND) {
            if (
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
                kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
#else
                kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND
#endif
               )
            {
                assert(ascii->wstr == data);
                assert(compact->wstr_length == ascii->length);
            } else
                assert(ascii->wstr != data);
        }

        if (compact->utf8 == NULL)
            assert(compact->utf8_length == 0);
        if (ascii->wstr == NULL)
            assert(compact->wstr_length == 0);
    }
    /* check that the best kind is used */
    if (check_content && kind != PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND)
    {
        Py_ssize_t i;
        Py_UCS4 maxchar = 0;
        void *data;
        Py_UCS4 ch;

        data = PyUnicode_DATA(ascii);
        for (i=0; i < ascii->length; i++)
        {
            ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
            if (ch > maxchar)
                maxchar = ch;
        }
        if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
            if (ascii->state.ascii == 0) {
                assert(maxchar >= 128);
                assert(maxchar <= 255);
            }
            else
                assert(maxchar < 128);
        }
        else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            assert(maxchar >= 0x100);
            assert(maxchar <= 0xFFFF);
        }
        else {
            assert(maxchar >= 0x10000);
            assert(maxchar <= MAX_UNICODE);
        }
        assert(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, ascii->length) == 0);
    }
    return 1;
}
#endif

static PyObject*
unicode_result_wchar(PyObject *unicode)
{
#ifndef Py_DEBUG
    Py_ssize_t len;

    len = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (len == 0) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    if (len == 1) {
        wchar_t ch = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)[0];
        if ((Py_UCS4)ch < 256) {
            PyObject *latin1_char = get_latin1_char((unsigned char)ch);
            Py_DECREF(unicode);
            return latin1_char;
        }
    }

    if (_PyUnicode_Ready(unicode) < 0) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        return NULL;
    }
#else
    assert(Py_REFCNT(unicode) == 1);

    /* don't make the result ready in debug mode to ensure that the caller
       makes the string ready before using it */
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
#endif
    return unicode;
}

static PyObject*
unicode_result_ready(PyObject *unicode)
{
    Py_ssize_t length;

    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (length == 0) {
        if (unicode != unicode_empty) {
            Py_DECREF(unicode);
            _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        }
        return unicode_empty;
    }

    if (length == 1) {
        void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
        int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
        if (ch < 256) {
            PyObject *latin1_char = unicode_latin1[ch];
            if (latin1_char != NULL) {
                if (unicode != latin1_char) {
                    Py_INCREF(latin1_char);
                    Py_DECREF(unicode);
                }
                return latin1_char;
            }
            else {
                assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
                Py_INCREF(unicode);
                unicode_latin1[ch] = unicode;
                return unicode;
            }
        }
    }

    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
    return unicode;
}

static PyObject*
unicode_result(PyObject *unicode)
{
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(unicode));
    if (PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode))
        return unicode_result_ready(unicode);
    else
        return unicode_result_wchar(unicode);
}

static PyObject*
unicode_result_unchanged(PyObject *unicode)
{
    if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(unicode)) {
        if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
            return NULL;
        Py_INCREF(unicode);
        return unicode;
    }
    else
        /* Subtype -- return genuine unicode string with the same value. */
        return _PyUnicode_Copy(unicode);
}

/* Implementation of the "backslashreplace" error handler for 8-bit encodings:
   ASCII, Latin1, UTF-8, etc. */
static char*
backslashreplace(_PyBytesWriter *writer, char *str,
                 PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t collstart, Py_ssize_t collend)
{
    Py_ssize_t size, i;
    Py_UCS4 ch;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;

    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);

    size = 0;
    /* determine replacement size */
    for (i = collstart; i < collend; ++i) {
        Py_ssize_t incr;

        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (ch < 0x100)
            incr = 2+2;
        else if (ch < 0x10000)
            incr = 2+4;
        else {
            assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);
            incr = 2+8;
        }
        if (size > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - incr) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "encoded result is too long for a Python string");
            return NULL;
        }
        size += incr;
    }

    str = _PyBytesWriter_Prepare(writer, str, size);
    if (str == NULL)
        return NULL;

    /* generate replacement */
    for (i = collstart; i < collend; ++i) {
        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        *str++ = '\\';
        if (ch >= 0x00010000) {
            *str++ = 'U';
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>28)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>24)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>20)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>16)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>12)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>8)&0xf];
        }
        else if (ch >= 0x100) {
            *str++ = 'u';
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>12)&0xf];
            *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>8)&0xf];
        }
        else
            *str++ = 'x';
        *str++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch>>4)&0xf];
        *str++ = Py_hexdigits[ch&0xf];
    }
    return str;
}

/* Implementation of the "xmlcharrefreplace" error handler for 8-bit encodings:
   ASCII, Latin1, UTF-8, etc. */
static char*
xmlcharrefreplace(_PyBytesWriter *writer, char *str,
                  PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t collstart, Py_ssize_t collend)
{
    Py_ssize_t size, i;
    Py_UCS4 ch;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;

    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);

    size = 0;
    /* determine replacement size */
    for (i = collstart; i < collend; ++i) {
        Py_ssize_t incr;

        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (ch < 10)
            incr = 2+1+1;
        else if (ch < 100)
            incr = 2+2+1;
        else if (ch < 1000)
            incr = 2+3+1;
        else if (ch < 10000)
            incr = 2+4+1;
        else if (ch < 100000)
            incr = 2+5+1;
        else if (ch < 1000000)
            incr = 2+6+1;
        else {
            assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);
            incr = 2+7+1;
        }
        if (size > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - incr) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "encoded result is too long for a Python string");
            return NULL;
        }
        size += incr;
    }

    str = _PyBytesWriter_Prepare(writer, str, size);
    if (str == NULL)
        return NULL;

    /* generate replacement */
    for (i = collstart; i < collend; ++i) {
        str += sprintf(str, "&#%d;", PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i));
    }
    return str;
}

/* --- Bloom Filters ----------------------------------------------------- */

/* stuff to implement simple "bloom filters" for Unicode characters.
   to keep things simple, we use a single bitmask, using the least 5
   bits from each unicode characters as the bit index. */

/* the linebreak mask is set up by Unicode_Init below */

#if LONG_BIT >= 128
#define BLOOM_WIDTH 128
#elif LONG_BIT >= 64
#define BLOOM_WIDTH 64
#elif LONG_BIT >= 32
#define BLOOM_WIDTH 32
#else
#error "LONG_BIT is smaller than 32"
#endif

#define BLOOM_MASK unsigned long

static BLOOM_MASK bloom_linebreak = ~(BLOOM_MASK)0;

#define BLOOM(mask, ch)     ((mask &  (1UL << ((ch) & (BLOOM_WIDTH - 1)))))

#define BLOOM_LINEBREAK(ch)                                             \
    ((ch) < 128U ? ascii_linebreak[(ch)] :                              \
     (BLOOM(bloom_linebreak, (ch)) && Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK(ch)))

static inline BLOOM_MASK
make_bloom_mask(int kind, void* ptr, Py_ssize_t len)
{
#define BLOOM_UPDATE(TYPE, MASK, PTR, LEN)             \
    do {                                               \
        TYPE *data = (TYPE *)PTR;                      \
        TYPE *end = data + LEN;                        \
        Py_UCS4 ch;                                    \
        for (; data != end; data++) {                  \
            ch = *data;                                \
            MASK |= (1UL << (ch & (BLOOM_WIDTH - 1))); \
        }                                              \
        break;                                         \
    } while (0)

    /* calculate simple bloom-style bitmask for a given unicode string */

    BLOOM_MASK mask;

    mask = 0;
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        BLOOM_UPDATE(Py_UCS1, mask, ptr, len);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        BLOOM_UPDATE(Py_UCS2, mask, ptr, len);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        BLOOM_UPDATE(Py_UCS4, mask, ptr, len);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
    }
    return mask;

#undef BLOOM_UPDATE
}

static int
ensure_unicode(PyObject *obj)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(obj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "must be str, not %.100s",
                     Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name);
        return -1;
    }
    return PyUnicode_READY(obj);
}

/* Compilation of templated routines */

#include "stringlib/asciilib.h"
#include "stringlib/fastsearch.h"
#include "stringlib/partition.h"
#include "stringlib/split.h"
#include "stringlib/count.h"
#include "stringlib/find.h"
#include "stringlib/find_max_char.h"
#include "stringlib/localeutil.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs1lib.h"
#include "stringlib/fastsearch.h"
#include "stringlib/partition.h"
#include "stringlib/split.h"
#include "stringlib/count.h"
#include "stringlib/find.h"
#include "stringlib/replace.h"
#include "stringlib/find_max_char.h"
#include "stringlib/localeutil.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs2lib.h"
#include "stringlib/fastsearch.h"
#include "stringlib/partition.h"
#include "stringlib/split.h"
#include "stringlib/count.h"
#include "stringlib/find.h"
#include "stringlib/replace.h"
#include "stringlib/find_max_char.h"
#include "stringlib/localeutil.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs4lib.h"
#include "stringlib/fastsearch.h"
#include "stringlib/partition.h"
#include "stringlib/split.h"
#include "stringlib/count.h"
#include "stringlib/find.h"
#include "stringlib/replace.h"
#include "stringlib/find_max_char.h"
#include "stringlib/localeutil.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/unicodedefs.h"
#include "stringlib/fastsearch.h"
#include "stringlib/count.h"
#include "stringlib/find.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

/* --- Unicode Object ----------------------------------------------------- */

static PyObject *
fixup(PyObject *self, Py_UCS4 (*fixfct)(PyObject *s));

static inline Py_ssize_t
findchar(const void *s, int kind,
         Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 ch,
         int direction)
{
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if ((Py_UCS1) ch != ch)
            return -1;
        if (direction > 0)
            return ucs1lib_find_char((Py_UCS1 *) s, size, (Py_UCS1) ch);
        else
            return ucs1lib_rfind_char((Py_UCS1 *) s, size, (Py_UCS1) ch);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        if ((Py_UCS2) ch != ch)
            return -1;
        if (direction > 0)
            return ucs2lib_find_char((Py_UCS2 *) s, size, (Py_UCS2) ch);
        else
            return ucs2lib_rfind_char((Py_UCS2 *) s, size, (Py_UCS2) ch);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        if (direction > 0)
            return ucs4lib_find_char((Py_UCS4 *) s, size, ch);
        else
            return ucs4lib_rfind_char((Py_UCS4 *) s, size, ch);
    default:
        assert(0);
        return -1;
    }
}

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
/* Fill the data of a Unicode string with invalid characters to detect bugs
   earlier.

   _PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(str, 1) detects invalid characters, at least for
   ASCII and UCS-4 strings. U+00FF is invalid in ASCII and U+FFFFFFFF is an
   invalid character in Unicode 6.0. */
static void
unicode_fill_invalid(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t old_length)
{
    int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    Py_UCS1 *data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode);
    Py_ssize_t length = _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (length <= old_length)
        return;
    memset(data + old_length * kind, 0xff, (length - old_length) * kind);
}
#endif

static PyObject*
resize_compact(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t length)
{
    Py_ssize_t char_size;
    Py_ssize_t struct_size;
    Py_ssize_t new_size;
    int share_wstr;
    PyObject *new_unicode;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    Py_ssize_t old_length = _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);
#endif

    assert(unicode_modifiable(unicode));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode));

    char_size = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
        struct_size = sizeof(PyASCIIObject);
    else
        struct_size = sizeof(PyCompactUnicodeObject);
    share_wstr = _PyUnicode_SHARE_WSTR(unicode);

    if (length > ((PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - struct_size) / char_size - 1)) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }
    new_size = (struct_size + (length + 1) * char_size);

    if (_PyUnicode_HAS_UTF8_MEMORY(unicode)) {
        PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
    }
    _Py_DEC_REFTOTAL;
    _Py_ForgetReference(unicode);

    new_unicode = (PyObject *)PyObject_REALLOC(unicode, new_size);
    if (new_unicode == NULL) {
        _Py_NewReference(unicode);
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }
    unicode = new_unicode;
    _Py_NewReference(unicode);

    _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
    if (share_wstr) {
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
        if (!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
    }
    else if (_PyUnicode_HAS_WSTR_MEMORY(unicode)) {
        PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        if (!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
    }
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    unicode_fill_invalid(unicode, old_length);
#endif
    PyUnicode_WRITE(PyUnicode_KIND(unicode), PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
                    length, 0);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 0));
    return unicode;
}

static int
resize_inplace(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t length)
{
    wchar_t *wstr;
    Py_ssize_t new_size;
    assert(!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode));
    assert(Py_REFCNT(unicode) == 1);

    if (PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode)) {
        Py_ssize_t char_size;
        int share_wstr, share_utf8;
        void *data;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
        Py_ssize_t old_length = _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);
#endif

        data = _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode);
        char_size = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
        share_wstr = _PyUnicode_SHARE_WSTR(unicode);
        share_utf8 = _PyUnicode_SHARE_UTF8(unicode);

        if (length > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / char_size - 1)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        new_size = (length + 1) * char_size;

        if (!share_utf8 && _PyUnicode_HAS_UTF8_MEMORY(unicode))
        {
            PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode));
            _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
            _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        }

        data = (PyObject *)PyObject_REALLOC(data, new_size);
        if (data == NULL) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = data;
        if (share_wstr) {
            _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = data;
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
        }
        if (share_utf8) {
            _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = data;
            _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
        }
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
        PyUnicode_WRITE(PyUnicode_KIND(unicode), data, length, 0);
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
        unicode_fill_invalid(unicode, old_length);
#endif
        if (share_wstr || _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) == NULL) {
            assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 0));
            return 0;
        }
    }
    assert(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) != NULL);

    /* check for integer overflow */
    if (length > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(wchar_t) - 1) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return -1;
    }
    new_size = sizeof(wchar_t) * (length + 1);
    wstr =  _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
    wstr = PyObject_REALLOC(wstr, new_size);
    if (!wstr) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return -1;
    }
    _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = wstr;
    _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)[length] = 0;
    _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 0));
    return 0;
}

static PyObject*
resize_copy(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t length)
{
    Py_ssize_t copy_length;
    if (_PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) != PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND) {
        PyObject *copy;

        if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
            return NULL;

        copy = PyUnicode_New(length, PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode));
        if (copy == NULL)
            return NULL;

        copy_length = Py_MIN(length, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(copy, 0, unicode, 0, copy_length);
        return copy;
    }
    else {
        PyObject *w;

        w = (PyObject*)_PyUnicode_New(length);
        if (w == NULL)
            return NULL;
        copy_length = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        copy_length = Py_MIN(copy_length, length);
        Py_MEMCPY(_PyUnicode_WSTR(w), _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode),
                  copy_length * sizeof(wchar_t));
        return w;
    }
}

/* We allocate one more byte to make sure the string is
   Ux0000 terminated; some code (e.g. new_identifier)
   relies on that.

   XXX This allocator could further be enhanced by assuring that the
   free list never reduces its size below 1.

*/

static PyUnicodeObject *
_PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t length)
{
    PyUnicodeObject *unicode;
    size_t new_size;

    /* Optimization for empty strings */
    if (length == 0 && unicode_empty != NULL) {
        Py_INCREF(unicode_empty);
        return (PyUnicodeObject*)unicode_empty;
    }

    /* Ensure we won't overflow the size. */
    if (length > ((PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(Py_UNICODE)) - 1)) {
        return (PyUnicodeObject *)PyErr_NoMemory();
    }
    if (length < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
                        "Negative size passed to _PyUnicode_New");
        return NULL;
    }

    unicode = PyObject_New(PyUnicodeObject, &PyUnicode_Type);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    new_size = sizeof(Py_UNICODE) * ((size_t)length + 1);

    _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = length;
    _PyUnicode_HASH(unicode) = -1;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).interned = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).compact = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ready = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ascii = 0;
    _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = NULL;
    _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
    _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
    _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;

    _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = (Py_UNICODE*) PyObject_MALLOC(new_size);
    if (!_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }

    /* Initialize the first element to guard against cases where
     * the caller fails before initializing str -- unicode_resize()
     * reads str[0], and the Keep-Alive optimization can keep memory
     * allocated for str alive across a call to unicode_dealloc(unicode).
     * We don't want unicode_resize to read uninitialized memory in
     * that case.
     */
    _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)[0] = 0;
    _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)[length] = 0;

    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency((PyObject *)unicode, 0));
    return unicode;
}

static const char*
unicode_kind_name(PyObject *unicode)
{
    /* don't check consistency: unicode_kind_name() is called from
       _PyUnicode_Dump() */
    if (!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode))
    {
        if (!PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode))
            return "wstr";
        switch (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode))
        {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
                return "legacy ascii";
            else
                return "legacy latin1";
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            return "legacy UCS2";
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            return "legacy UCS4";
        default:
            return "<legacy invalid kind>";
        }
    }
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    switch (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode)) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
            return "ascii";
        else
            return "latin1";
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return "UCS2";
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return "UCS4";
    default:
        return "<invalid compact kind>";
    }
}

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
/* Functions wrapping macros for use in debugger */
char *_PyUnicode_utf8(void *unicode){
    return PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode);
}

void *_PyUnicode_compact_data(void *unicode) {
    return _PyUnicode_COMPACT_DATA(unicode);
}
void *_PyUnicode_data(void *unicode){
    printf("obj %p\n", unicode);
    printf("compact %d\n", PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode));
    printf("compact ascii %d\n", PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(unicode));
    printf("ascii op %p\n", ((void*)((PyASCIIObject*)(unicode) + 1)));
    printf("compact op %p\n", ((void*)((PyCompactUnicodeObject*)(unicode) + 1)));
    printf("compact data %p\n", _PyUnicode_COMPACT_DATA(unicode));
    return PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
}

void
_PyUnicode_Dump(PyObject *op)
{
    PyASCIIObject *ascii = (PyASCIIObject *)op;
    PyCompactUnicodeObject *compact = (PyCompactUnicodeObject *)op;
    PyUnicodeObject *unicode = (PyUnicodeObject *)op;
    void *data;

    if (ascii->state.compact)
    {
        if (ascii->state.ascii)
            data = (ascii + 1);
        else
            data = (compact + 1);
    }
    else
        data = unicode->data.any;
    printf("%s: len=%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "u, ",
           unicode_kind_name(op), ascii->length);

    if (ascii->wstr == data)
        printf("shared ");
    printf("wstr=%p", ascii->wstr);

    if (!(ascii->state.ascii == 1 && ascii->state.compact == 1)) {
        printf(" (%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "u), ", compact->wstr_length);
        if (!ascii->state.compact && compact->utf8 == unicode->data.any)
            printf("shared ");
        printf("utf8=%p (%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "u)",
               compact->utf8, compact->utf8_length);
    }
    printf(", data=%p\n", data);
}
#endif

PyObject *
PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 maxchar)
{
    PyObject *obj;
    PyCompactUnicodeObject *unicode;
    void *data;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    int is_sharing, is_ascii;
    Py_ssize_t char_size;
    Py_ssize_t struct_size;

    /* Optimization for empty strings */
    if (size == 0 && unicode_empty != NULL) {
        Py_INCREF(unicode_empty);
        return unicode_empty;
    }

    is_ascii = 0;
    is_sharing = 0;
    struct_size = sizeof(PyCompactUnicodeObject);
    if (maxchar < 128) {
        kind = PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND;
        char_size = 1;
        is_ascii = 1;
        struct_size = sizeof(PyASCIIObject);
    }
    else if (maxchar < 256) {
        kind = PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND;
        char_size = 1;
    }
    else if (maxchar < 65536) {
        kind = PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND;
        char_size = 2;
        if (sizeof(wchar_t) == 2)
            is_sharing = 1;
    }
    else {
        if (maxchar > MAX_UNICODE) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
                            "invalid maximum character passed to PyUnicode_New");
            return NULL;
        }
        kind = PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND;
        char_size = 4;
        if (sizeof(wchar_t) == 4)
            is_sharing = 1;
    }

    /* Ensure we won't overflow the size. */
    if (size < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
                        "Negative size passed to PyUnicode_New");
        return NULL;
    }
    if (size > ((PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - struct_size) / char_size - 1))
        return PyErr_NoMemory();

    /* Duplicated allocation code from _PyObject_New() instead of a call to
     * PyObject_New() so we are able to allocate space for the object and
     * it's data buffer.
     */
    obj = (PyObject *) PyObject_MALLOC(struct_size + (size + 1) * char_size);
    if (obj == NULL)
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    obj = PyObject_INIT(obj, &PyUnicode_Type);
    if (obj == NULL)
        return NULL;

    unicode = (PyCompactUnicodeObject *)obj;
    if (is_ascii)
        data = ((PyASCIIObject*)obj) + 1;
    else
        data = unicode + 1;
    _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = size;
    _PyUnicode_HASH(unicode) = -1;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).interned = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = kind;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).compact = 1;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ready = 1;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ascii = is_ascii;
    if (is_ascii) {
        ((char*)data)[size] = 0;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
    }
    else if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        ((char*)data)[size] = 0;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        unicode->utf8 = NULL;
        unicode->utf8_length = 0;
    }
    else {
        unicode->utf8 = NULL;
        unicode->utf8_length = 0;
        if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND)
            ((Py_UCS2*)data)[size] = 0;
        else /* kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND */
            ((Py_UCS4*)data)[size] = 0;
        if (is_sharing) {
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = size;
            _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = (wchar_t *)data;
        }
        else {
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
            _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        }
    }
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    unicode_fill_invalid((PyObject*)unicode, 0);
#endif
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency((PyObject*)unicode, 0));
    return obj;
}

#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
/* Helper function to convert a 16-bits wchar_t representation to UCS4, this
   will decode surrogate pairs, the other conversions are implemented as macros
   for efficiency.

   This function assumes that unicode can hold one more code point than wstr
   characters for a terminating null character. */
static void
unicode_convert_wchar_to_ucs4(const wchar_t *begin, const wchar_t *end,
                              PyObject *unicode)
{
    const wchar_t *iter;
    Py_UCS4 *ucs4_out;

    assert(unicode != NULL);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(unicode));
    assert(_PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
    ucs4_out = PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode);

    for (iter = begin; iter < end; ) {
        assert(ucs4_out < (PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode) +
                           _PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)));
        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(iter[0])
            && (iter+1) < end
            && Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(iter[1]))
        {
            *ucs4_out++ = Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(iter[0], iter[1]);
            iter += 2;
        }
        else {
            *ucs4_out++ = *iter;
            iter++;
        }
    }
    assert(ucs4_out == (PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode) +
                        _PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)));

}
#endif

static int
unicode_check_modifiable(PyObject *unicode)
{
    if (!unicode_modifiable(unicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
                        "Cannot modify a string currently used");
        return -1;
    }
    return 0;
}

static int
_copy_characters(PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start,
                 PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t from_start,
                 Py_ssize_t how_many, int check_maxchar)
{
    unsigned int from_kind, to_kind;
    void *from_data, *to_data;

    assert(0 <= how_many);
    assert(0 <= from_start);
    assert(0 <= to_start);
    assert(PyUnicode_Check(from));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(from));
    assert(from_start + how_many <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(from));

    assert(PyUnicode_Check(to));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(to));
    assert(to_start + how_many <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(to));

    if (how_many == 0)
        return 0;

    from_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(from);
    from_data = PyUnicode_DATA(from);
    to_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(to);
    to_data = PyUnicode_DATA(to);

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    if (!check_maxchar
        && PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(from) > PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(to))
    {
        const Py_UCS4 to_maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(to);
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        Py_ssize_t i;
        for (i=0; i < how_many; i++) {
            ch = PyUnicode_READ(from_kind, from_data, from_start + i);
            assert(ch <= to_maxchar);
        }
    }
#endif

    if (from_kind == to_kind) {
        if (check_maxchar
            && !PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(from) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(to))
        {
            /* Writing Latin-1 characters into an ASCII string requires to
               check that all written characters are pure ASCII */
            Py_UCS4 max_char;
            max_char = ucs1lib_find_max_char(from_data,
                                             (Py_UCS1*)from_data + how_many);
            if (max_char >= 128)
                return -1;
        }
        Py_MEMCPY((char*)to_data + to_kind * to_start,
                  (char*)from_data + from_kind * from_start,
                  to_kind * how_many);
    }
    else if (from_kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
             && to_kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND)
    {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2,
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
            PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
            );
    }
    else if (from_kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
             && to_kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND)
    {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS1, Py_UCS4,
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
            PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
            );
    }
    else if (from_kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
             && to_kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND)
    {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4,
            PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
            PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
            PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
            );
    }
    else {
        assert (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(from) > PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(to));

        if (!check_maxchar) {
            if (from_kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
                && to_kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND)
            {
                _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
                    Py_UCS2, Py_UCS1,
                    PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
                    PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
                    PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
                    );
            }
            else if (from_kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND
                     && to_kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND)
            {
                _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
                    Py_UCS4, Py_UCS1,
                    PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
                    PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
                    PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
                    );
            }
            else if (from_kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND
                     && to_kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND)
            {
                _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
                    Py_UCS4, Py_UCS2,
                    PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start,
                    PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(from) + from_start + how_many,
                    PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(to) + to_start
                    );
            }
            else {
                assert(0);
                return -1;
            }
        }
        else {
            const Py_UCS4 to_maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(to);
            Py_UCS4 ch;
            Py_ssize_t i;

            for (i=0; i < how_many; i++) {
                ch = PyUnicode_READ(from_kind, from_data, from_start + i);
                if (ch > to_maxchar)
                    return -1;
                PyUnicode_WRITE(to_kind, to_data, to_start + i, ch);
            }
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

void
_PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(
    PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start,
    PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)
{
    (void)_copy_characters(to, to_start, from, from_start, how_many, 0);
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start,
                         PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t from_start,
                         Py_ssize_t how_many)
{
    int err;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(from) || !PyUnicode_Check(to)) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(from) == -1)
        return -1;
    if (PyUnicode_READY(to) == -1)
        return -1;

    if (from_start < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return -1;
    }
    if (to_start < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return -1;
    }
    how_many = Py_MIN(PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(from), how_many);
    if (to_start + how_many > PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(to)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_SystemError,
                     "Cannot write %zi characters at %zi "
                     "in a string of %zi characters",
                     how_many, to_start, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(to));
        return -1;
    }

    if (how_many == 0)
        return 0;

    if (unicode_check_modifiable(to))
        return -1;

    err = _copy_characters(to, to_start, from, from_start, how_many, 1);
    if (err) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_SystemError,
                     "Cannot copy %s characters "
                     "into a string of %s characters",
                     unicode_kind_name(from),
                     unicode_kind_name(to));
        return -1;
    }
    return how_many;
}

/* Find the maximum code point and count the number of surrogate pairs so a
   correct string length can be computed before converting a string to UCS4.
   This function counts single surrogates as a character and not as a pair.

   Return 0 on success, or -1 on error. */
static int
find_maxchar_surrogates(const wchar_t *begin, const wchar_t *end,
                        Py_UCS4 *maxchar, Py_ssize_t *num_surrogates)
{
    const wchar_t *iter;
    Py_UCS4 ch;

    assert(num_surrogates != NULL && maxchar != NULL);
    *num_surrogates = 0;
    *maxchar = 0;

    for (iter = begin; iter < end; ) {
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(iter[0])
            && (iter+1) < end
            && Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(iter[1]))
        {
            ch = Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(iter[0], iter[1]);
            ++(*num_surrogates);
            iter += 2;
        }
        else
#endif
        {
            ch = *iter;
            iter++;
        }
        if (ch > *maxchar) {
            *maxchar = ch;
            if (*maxchar > MAX_UNICODE) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                             "character U+%x is not in range [U+0000; U+10ffff]",
                             ch);
                return -1;
            }
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

int
_PyUnicode_Ready(PyObject *unicode)
{
    wchar_t *end;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar = 0;
    Py_ssize_t num_surrogates;
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
    Py_ssize_t length_wo_surrogates;
#endif

    /* _PyUnicode_Ready() is only intended for old-style API usage where
       strings were created using _PyObject_New() and where no canonical
       representation (the str field) has been set yet aka strings
       which are not yet ready. */
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(unicode));
    assert(_PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND);
    assert(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) != NULL);
    assert(_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) == NULL);
    assert(_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) == NULL);
    /* Actually, it should neither be interned nor be anything else: */
    assert(_PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).interned == SSTATE_NOT_INTERNED);

    end = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) + _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (find_maxchar_surrogates(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode), end,
                                &maxchar, &num_surrogates) == -1)
        return -1;

    if (maxchar < 256) {
        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = PyObject_MALLOC(_PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) + 1);
        if (!_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(wchar_t, unsigned char,
                                _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode), end,
                                PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode));
        PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode)[_PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode)] = '\0';
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND;
        if (maxchar < 128) {
            _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ascii = 1;
            _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode);
            _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        }
        else {
            _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ascii = 0;
            _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
            _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        }
        PyObject_FREE(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
    }
    /* In this case we might have to convert down from 4-byte native
       wchar_t to 2-byte unicode. */
    else if (maxchar < 65536) {
        assert(num_surrogates == 0 &&
               "FindMaxCharAndNumSurrogatePairs() messed up");

#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
        /* We can share representations and are done. */
        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
        PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode)[_PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode)] = '\0';
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
#else
        /* sizeof(wchar_t) == 4 */
        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = PyObject_MALLOC(
            2 * (_PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) + 1));
        if (!_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(wchar_t, Py_UCS2,
                                _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode), end,
                                PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode));
        PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode)[_PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode)] = '\0';
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        PyObject_FREE(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
#endif
    }
    /* maxchar exeeds 16 bit, wee need 4 bytes for unicode characters */
    else {
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
        /* in case the native representation is 2-bytes, we need to allocate a
           new normalized 4-byte version. */
        length_wo_surrogates = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) - num_surrogates;
        if (length_wo_surrogates > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / 4 - 1) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = PyObject_MALLOC(4 * (length_wo_surrogates + 1));
        if (!_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return -1;
        }
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = length_wo_surrogates;
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        /* unicode_convert_wchar_to_ucs4() requires a ready string */
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ready = 1;
        unicode_convert_wchar_to_ucs4(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode), end, unicode);
        PyObject_FREE(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
#else
        assert(num_surrogates == 0);

        _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
        _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = 0;
        _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).kind = PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND;
#endif
        PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode)[_PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode)] = '\0';
    }
    _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ready = 1;
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
    return 0;
}

static void
unicode_dealloc(PyObject *unicode)
{
    switch (PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(unicode)) {
    case SSTATE_NOT_INTERNED:
        break;

    case SSTATE_INTERNED_MORTAL:
        /* revive dead object temporarily for DelItem */
        Py_REFCNT(unicode) = 3;
        if (PyDict_DelItem(interned, unicode) != 0)
            Py_FatalError(
                "deletion of interned string failed");
        break;

    case SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL:
        Py_FatalError("Immortal interned string died.");

    default:
        Py_FatalError("Inconsistent interned string state.");
    }

    if (_PyUnicode_HAS_WSTR_MEMORY(unicode))
        PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
    if (_PyUnicode_HAS_UTF8_MEMORY(unicode))
        PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode));
    if (!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode) && _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode))
        PyObject_DEL(_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(unicode));

    Py_TYPE(unicode)->tp_free(unicode);
}

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
static int
unicode_is_singleton(PyObject *unicode)
{
    PyASCIIObject *ascii = (PyASCIIObject *)unicode;
    if (unicode == unicode_empty)
        return 1;
    if (ascii->state.kind != PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND && ascii->length == 1)
    {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(unicode, 0);
        if (ch < 256 && unicode_latin1[ch] == unicode)
            return 1;
    }
    return 0;
}
#endif

static int
unicode_modifiable(PyObject *unicode)
{
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(unicode));
    if (Py_REFCNT(unicode) != 1)
        return 0;
    if (_PyUnicode_HASH(unicode) != -1)
        return 0;
    if (PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(unicode))
        return 0;
    if (!PyUnicode_CheckExact(unicode))
        return 0;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    /* singleton refcount is greater than 1 */
    assert(!unicode_is_singleton(unicode));
#endif
    return 1;
}

static int
unicode_resize(PyObject **p_unicode, Py_ssize_t length)
{
    PyObject *unicode;
    Py_ssize_t old_length;

    assert(p_unicode != NULL);
    unicode = *p_unicode;

    assert(unicode != NULL);
    assert(PyUnicode_Check(unicode));
    assert(0 <= length);

    if (_PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND)
        old_length = PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
    else
        old_length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (old_length == length)
        return 0;

    if (length == 0) {
        _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        if (!unicode_empty)
            return -1;
        Py_SETREF(*p_unicode, unicode_empty);
        return 0;
    }

    if (!unicode_modifiable(unicode)) {
        PyObject *copy = resize_copy(unicode, length);
        if (copy == NULL)
            return -1;
        Py_SETREF(*p_unicode, copy);
        return 0;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode)) {
        PyObject *new_unicode = resize_compact(unicode, length);
        if (new_unicode == NULL)
            return -1;
        *p_unicode = new_unicode;
        return 0;
    }
    return resize_inplace(unicode, length);
}

int
PyUnicode_Resize(PyObject **p_unicode, Py_ssize_t length)
{
    PyObject *unicode;
    if (p_unicode == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return -1;
    }
    unicode = *p_unicode;
    if (unicode == NULL || !PyUnicode_Check(unicode) || length < 0)
    {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return -1;
    }
    return unicode_resize(p_unicode, length);
}

/* Copy an ASCII or latin1 char* string into a Python Unicode string.

   WARNING: The function doesn't copy the terminating null character and
   doesn't check the maximum character (may write a latin1 character in an
   ASCII string). */
static void
unicode_write_cstr(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index,
                   const char *str, Py_ssize_t len)
{
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    const char *end = str + len;

    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: {
        assert(index + len <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode)) {
            Py_UCS4 maxchar = ucs1lib_find_max_char(
                (const Py_UCS1*)str,
                (const Py_UCS1*)str + len);
            assert(maxchar < 128);
        }
#endif
        memcpy((char *) data + index, str, len);
        break;
    }
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: {
        Py_UCS2 *start = (Py_UCS2 *)data + index;
        Py_UCS2 *ucs2 = start;
        assert(index <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));

        for (; str < end; ++ucs2, ++str)
            *ucs2 = (Py_UCS2)*str;

        assert((ucs2 - start) <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
        break;
    }
    default: {
        Py_UCS4 *start = (Py_UCS4 *)data + index;
        Py_UCS4 *ucs4 = start;
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        assert(index <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));

        for (; str < end; ++ucs4, ++str)
            *ucs4 = (Py_UCS4)*str;

        assert((ucs4 - start) <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
    }
    }
}

static PyObject*
get_latin1_char(unsigned char ch)
{
    PyObject *unicode = unicode_latin1[ch];
    if (!unicode) {
        unicode = PyUnicode_New(1, ch);
        if (!unicode)
            return NULL;
        PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode)[0] = ch;
        assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
        unicode_latin1[ch] = unicode;
    }
    Py_INCREF(unicode);
    return unicode;
}

static PyObject*
unicode_char(Py_UCS4 ch)
{
    PyObject *unicode;

    assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);

    if (ch < 256)
        return get_latin1_char(ch);

    unicode = PyUnicode_New(1, ch);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    switch (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode)) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode)[0] = (Py_UCS1)ch;
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode)[0] = (Py_UCS2)ch;
        break;
    default:
        assert(PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode)[0] = ch;
    }
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
    return unicode;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromUnicode(const Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *unicode;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar = 0;
    Py_ssize_t num_surrogates;

    if (u == NULL)
        return (PyObject*)_PyUnicode_New(size);

    /* If the Unicode data is known at construction time, we can apply
       some optimizations which share commonly used objects. */

    /* Optimization for empty strings */
    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();

    /* Single character Unicode objects in the Latin-1 range are
       shared when using this constructor */
    if (size == 1 && (Py_UCS4)*u < 256)
        return get_latin1_char((unsigned char)*u);

    /* If not empty and not single character, copy the Unicode data
       into the new object */
    if (find_maxchar_surrogates(u, u + size,
                                &maxchar, &num_surrogates) == -1)
        return NULL;

    unicode = PyUnicode_New(size - num_surrogates, maxchar);
    if (!unicode)
        return NULL;

    switch (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode)) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UNICODE, unsigned char,
                                u, u + size, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode));
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
#if Py_UNICODE_SIZE == 2
        Py_MEMCPY(PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode), u, size * 2);
#else
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UNICODE, Py_UCS2,
                                u, u + size, PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode));
#endif
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
        /* This is the only case which has to process surrogates, thus
           a simple copy loop is not enough and we need a function. */
        unicode_convert_wchar_to_ucs4(u, u + size, unicode);
#else
        assert(num_surrogates == 0);
        Py_MEMCPY(PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode), u, size * 4);
#endif
        break;
    default:
        assert(0 && "Impossible state");
    }

    return unicode_result(unicode);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(const char *u, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    if (size < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,
                        "Negative size passed to PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize");
        return NULL;
    }
    if (u != NULL)
        return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(u, size, NULL, NULL);
    else
        return (PyObject *)_PyUnicode_New(size);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromString(const char *u)
{
    size_t size = strlen(u);
    if (size > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError, "input too long");
        return NULL;
    }
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(u, (Py_ssize_t)size, NULL, NULL);
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_FromId(_Py_Identifier *id)
{
    if (!id->object) {
        id->object = PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(id->string,
                                                  strlen(id->string),
                                                  NULL, NULL);
        if (!id->object)
            return NULL;
        PyUnicode_InternInPlace(&id->object);
        assert(!id->next);
        id->next = static_strings;
        static_strings = id;
    }
    return id->object;
}

void
_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()
{
    _Py_Identifier *tmp, *s = static_strings;
    while (s) {
        Py_CLEAR(s->object);
        tmp = s->next;
        s->next = NULL;
        s = tmp;
    }
    static_strings = NULL;
}

/* Internal function, doesn't check maximum character */

PyObject*
_PyUnicode_FromASCII(const char *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    const unsigned char *s = (const unsigned char *)buffer;
    PyObject *unicode;
    if (size == 1) {
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
        assert((unsigned char)s[0] < 128);
#endif
        return get_latin1_char(s[0]);
    }
    unicode = PyUnicode_New(size, 127);
    if (!unicode)
        return NULL;
    memcpy(PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode), s, size);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(unicode, 1));
    return unicode;
}

static Py_UCS4
kind_maxchar_limit(unsigned int kind)
{
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        return 0x80;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return 0x100;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return 0x10000;
    default:
        assert(0 && "invalid kind");
        return MAX_UNICODE;
    }
}

static inline Py_UCS4
align_maxchar(Py_UCS4 maxchar)
{
    if (maxchar <= 127)
        return 127;
    else if (maxchar <= 255)
        return 255;
    else if (maxchar <= 65535)
        return 65535;
    else
        return MAX_UNICODE;
}

static PyObject*
_PyUnicode_FromUCS1(const Py_UCS1* u, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *res;
    unsigned char max_char;

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    assert(size > 0);
    if (size == 1)
        return get_latin1_char(u[0]);

    max_char = ucs1lib_find_max_char(u, u + size);
    res = PyUnicode_New(size, max_char);
    if (!res)
        return NULL;
    memcpy(PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(res), u, size);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(res, 1));
    return res;
}

static PyObject*
_PyUnicode_FromUCS2(const Py_UCS2 *u, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *res;
    Py_UCS2 max_char;

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    assert(size > 0);
    if (size == 1)
        return unicode_char(u[0]);

    max_char = ucs2lib_find_max_char(u, u + size);
    res = PyUnicode_New(size, max_char);
    if (!res)
        return NULL;
    if (max_char >= 256)
        memcpy(PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(res), u, sizeof(Py_UCS2)*size);
    else {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS2, Py_UCS1, u, u + size, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(res));
    }
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(res, 1));
    return res;
}

static PyObject*
_PyUnicode_FromUCS4(const Py_UCS4 *u, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *res;
    Py_UCS4 max_char;

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    assert(size > 0);
    if (size == 1)
        return unicode_char(u[0]);

    max_char = ucs4lib_find_max_char(u, u + size);
    res = PyUnicode_New(size, max_char);
    if (!res)
        return NULL;
    if (max_char < 256)
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS1, u, u + size,
                                 PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(res));
    else if (max_char < 0x10000)
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS2, u, u + size,
                                 PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(res));
    else
        memcpy(PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(res), u, sizeof(Py_UCS4)*size);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(res, 1));
    return res;
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(int kind, const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    if (size < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "size must be positive");
        return NULL;
    }
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        return _PyUnicode_FromUCS1(buffer, size);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return _PyUnicode_FromUCS2(buffer, size);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return _PyUnicode_FromUCS4(buffer, size);
    default:
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, "invalid kind");
        return NULL;
    }
}

Py_UCS4
_PyUnicode_FindMaxChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
{
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *startptr, *endptr;

    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    assert(0 <= start);
    assert(end <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
    assert(start <= end);

    if (start == 0 && end == PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode))
        return PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode);

    if (start == end)
        return 127;

    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
        return 127;

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    startptr = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    endptr = (char *)startptr + end * kind;
    startptr = (char *)startptr + start * kind;
    switch(kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs1lib_find_max_char(startptr, endptr);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs2lib_find_max_char(startptr, endptr);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs4lib_find_max_char(startptr, endptr);
    default:
        assert(0);
        return 0;
    }
}

/* Ensure that a string uses the most efficient storage, if it is not the
   case: create a new string with of the right kind. Write NULL into *p_unicode
   on error. */
static void
unicode_adjust_maxchar(PyObject **p_unicode)
{
    PyObject *unicode, *copy;
    Py_UCS4 max_char;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    unsigned int kind;

    assert(p_unicode != NULL);
    unicode = *p_unicode;
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
        return;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        const Py_UCS1 *u = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode);
        max_char = ucs1lib_find_max_char(u, u + len);
        if (max_char >= 128)
            return;
    }
    else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
        const Py_UCS2 *u = PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode);
        max_char = ucs2lib_find_max_char(u, u + len);
        if (max_char >= 256)
            return;
    }
    else {
        const Py_UCS4 *u = PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode);
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        max_char = ucs4lib_find_max_char(u, u + len);
        if (max_char >= 0x10000)
            return;
    }
    copy = PyUnicode_New(len, max_char);
    if (copy != NULL)
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(copy, 0, unicode, 0, len);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    *p_unicode = copy;
}

PyObject*
_PyUnicode_Copy(PyObject *unicode)
{
    Py_ssize_t length;
    PyObject *copy;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;

    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    copy = PyUnicode_New(length, PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode));
    if (!copy)
        return NULL;
    assert(PyUnicode_KIND(copy) == PyUnicode_KIND(unicode));

    Py_MEMCPY(PyUnicode_DATA(copy), PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
              length * PyUnicode_KIND(unicode));
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(copy, 1));
    return copy;
}


/* Widen Unicode objects to larger buffers. Don't write terminating null
   character. Return NULL on error. */

void*
_PyUnicode_AsKind(PyObject *s, unsigned int kind)
{
    Py_ssize_t len;
    void *result;
    unsigned int skind;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(s) == -1)
        return NULL;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(s);
    skind = PyUnicode_KIND(s);
    if (skind >= kind) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, "invalid widening attempt");
        return NULL;
    }
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        result = PyMem_New(Py_UCS2, len);
        if (!result)
            return PyErr_NoMemory();
        assert(skind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2,
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(s),
            PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(s) + len,
            result);
        return result;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        result = PyMem_New(Py_UCS4, len);
        if (!result)
            return PyErr_NoMemory();
        if (skind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
                Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4,
                PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(s),
                PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(s) + len,
                result);
        }
        else {
            assert(skind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
            _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
                Py_UCS1, Py_UCS4,
                PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(s),
                PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(s) + len,
                result);
        }
        return result;
    default:
        break;
    }
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, "invalid kind");
    return NULL;
}

static Py_UCS4*
as_ucs4(PyObject *string, Py_UCS4 *target, Py_ssize_t targetsize,
        int copy_null)
{
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len, targetlen;
    if (PyUnicode_READY(string) == -1)
        return NULL;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(string);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(string);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string);
    targetlen = len;
    if (copy_null)
        targetlen++;
    if (!target) {
        target = PyMem_New(Py_UCS4, targetlen);
        if (!target) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            return NULL;
        }
    }
    else {
        if (targetsize < targetlen) {
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_SystemError,
                         "string is longer than the buffer");
            if (copy_null && 0 < targetsize)
                target[0] = 0;
            return NULL;
        }
    }
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        Py_UCS1 *start = (Py_UCS1 *) data;
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS1, Py_UCS4, start, start + len, target);
    }
    else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
        Py_UCS2 *start = (Py_UCS2 *) data;
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4, start, start + len, target);
    }
    else {
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        Py_MEMCPY(target, data, len * sizeof(Py_UCS4));
    }
    if (copy_null)
        target[len] = 0;
    return target;
}

Py_UCS4*
PyUnicode_AsUCS4(PyObject *string, Py_UCS4 *target, Py_ssize_t targetsize,
                 int copy_null)
{
    if (target == NULL || targetsize < 0) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }
    return as_ucs4(string, target, targetsize, copy_null);
}

Py_UCS4*
PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(PyObject *string)
{
    return as_ucs4(string, NULL, 0, 1);
}

#ifdef HAVE_WCHAR_H

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromWideChar(const wchar_t *w, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    if (w == NULL) {
        if (size == 0)
            _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (size == -1) {
        size = wcslen(w);
    }

    return PyUnicode_FromUnicode(w, size);
}

#endif /* HAVE_WCHAR_H */

/* maximum number of characters required for output of %lld or %p.
   We need at most ceil(log10(256)*SIZEOF_LONG_LONG) digits,
   plus 1 for the sign.  53/22 is an upper bound for log10(256). */
#define MAX_LONG_LONG_CHARS (2 + (SIZEOF_LONG_LONG*53-1) / 22)

static int
unicode_fromformat_write_str(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *str,
                             Py_ssize_t width, Py_ssize_t precision)
{
    Py_ssize_t length, fill, arglen;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return -1;

    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    if ((precision == -1 || precision >= length)
        && width <= length)
        return _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str);

    if (precision != -1)
        length = Py_MIN(precision, length);

    arglen = Py_MAX(length, width);
    if (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str) > writer->maxchar)
        maxchar = _PyUnicode_FindMaxChar(str, 0, length);
    else
        maxchar = writer->maxchar;

    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, arglen, maxchar) == -1)
        return -1;

    if (width > length) {
        fill = width - length;
        if (PyUnicode_Fill(writer->buffer, writer->pos, fill, ' ') == -1)
            return -1;
        writer->pos += fill;
    }

    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(writer->buffer, writer->pos,
                                  str, 0, length);
    writer->pos += length;
    return 0;
}

static int
unicode_fromformat_write_cstr(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const char *str,
                              Py_ssize_t width, Py_ssize_t precision)
{
    /* UTF-8 */
    Py_ssize_t length;
    PyObject *unicode;
    int res;

    length = strlen(str);
    if (precision != -1)
        length = Py_MIN(length, precision);
    unicode = PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(str, length, "replace", NULL);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return -1;

    res = unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, unicode, width, -1);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return res;
}

static const char*
unicode_fromformat_arg(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
                       const char *f, va_list *vargs)
{
    const char *p;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    int zeropad;
    Py_ssize_t width;
    Py_ssize_t precision;
    int longflag;
    int longlongflag;
    int size_tflag;
    Py_ssize_t fill;

    p = f;
    f++;
    zeropad = 0;
    if (*f == '0') {
        zeropad = 1;
        f++;
    }

    /* parse the width.precision part, e.g. "%2.5s" => width=2, precision=5 */
    width = -1;
    if (Py_ISDIGIT((unsigned)*f)) {
        width = *f - '0';
        f++;
        while (Py_ISDIGIT((unsigned)*f)) {
            if (width > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - ((int)*f - '0')) / 10) {
                PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                                "width too big");
                return NULL;
            }
            width = (width * 10) + (*f - '0');
            f++;
        }
    }
    precision = -1;
    if (*f == '.') {
        f++;
        if (Py_ISDIGIT((unsigned)*f)) {
            precision = (*f - '0');
            f++;
            while (Py_ISDIGIT((unsigned)*f)) {
                if (precision > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - ((int)*f - '0')) / 10) {
                    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                                    "precision too big");
                    return NULL;
                }
                precision = (precision * 10) + (*f - '0');
                f++;
            }
        }
        if (*f == '%') {
            /* "%.3%s" => f points to "3" */
            f--;
        }
    }
    if (*f == '\0') {
        /* bogus format "%.123" => go backward, f points to "3" */
        f--;
    }

    /* Handle %ld, %lu, %lld and %llu. */
    longflag = 0;
    longlongflag = 0;
    size_tflag = 0;
    if (*f == 'l') {
        if (f[1] == 'd' || f[1] == 'u' || f[1] == 'i') {
            longflag = 1;
            ++f;
        }
        else if (f[1] == 'l' &&
                 (f[2] == 'd' || f[2] == 'u' || f[2] == 'i')) {
            longlongflag = 1;
            f += 2;
        }
    }
    /* handle the size_t flag. */
    else if (*f == 'z' && (f[1] == 'd' || f[1] == 'u' || f[1] == 'i')) {
        size_tflag = 1;
        ++f;
    }

    if (f[1] == '\0')
        writer->overallocate = 0;

    switch (*f) {
    case 'c':
    {
        int ordinal = va_arg(*vargs, int);
        if (ordinal < 0 || ordinal > MAX_UNICODE) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "character argument not in range(0x110000)");
            return NULL;
        }
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, ordinal) < 0)
            return NULL;
        break;
    }

    case 'i':
    case 'd':
    case 'u':
    case 'x':
    {
        /* used by sprintf */
        char buffer[MAX_LONG_LONG_CHARS];
        Py_ssize_t arglen;

        if (*f == 'u') {
            if (longflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%lu",
                        va_arg(*vargs, unsigned long));
            else if (longlongflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%llu",
                        va_arg(*vargs, unsigned long long));
            else if (size_tflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "u",
                        va_arg(*vargs, size_t));
            else
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%u",
                        va_arg(*vargs, unsigned int));
        }
        else if (*f == 'x') {
            len = sprintf(buffer, "%x", va_arg(*vargs, int));
        }
        else {
            if (longflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%li",
                        va_arg(*vargs, long));
            else if (longlongflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%lli",
                        va_arg(*vargs, long long));
            else if (size_tflag)
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "i",
                        va_arg(*vargs, Py_ssize_t));
            else
                len = sprintf(buffer, "%i",
                        va_arg(*vargs, int));
        }
        assert(len >= 0);

        if (precision < len)
            precision = len;

        arglen = Py_MAX(precision, width);
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, arglen, 127) == -1)
            return NULL;

        if (width > precision) {
            Py_UCS4 fillchar;
            fill = width - precision;
            fillchar = zeropad?'0':' ';
            if (PyUnicode_Fill(writer->buffer, writer->pos, fill, fillchar) == -1)
                return NULL;
            writer->pos += fill;
        }
        if (precision > len) {
            fill = precision - len;
            if (PyUnicode_Fill(writer->buffer, writer->pos, fill, '0') == -1)
                return NULL;
            writer->pos += fill;
        }

        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(writer, buffer, len) < 0)
            return NULL;
        break;
    }

    case 'p':
    {
        char number[MAX_LONG_LONG_CHARS];

        len = sprintf(number, "%p", va_arg(*vargs, void*));
        assert(len >= 0);

        /* %p is ill-defined:  ensure leading 0x. */
        if (number[1] == 'X')
            number[1] = 'x';
        else if (number[1] != 'x') {
            memmove(number + 2, number,
                    strlen(number) + 1);
            number[0] = '0';
            number[1] = 'x';
            len += 2;
        }

        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(writer, number, len) < 0)
            return NULL;
        break;
    }

    case 's':
    {
        /* UTF-8 */
        const char *s = va_arg(*vargs, const char*);
        if (unicode_fromformat_write_cstr(writer, s, width, precision) < 0)
            return NULL;
        break;
    }

    case 'U':
    {
        PyObject *obj = va_arg(*vargs, PyObject *);
        assert(obj && _PyUnicode_CHECK(obj));

        if (unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, obj, width, precision) == -1)
            return NULL;
        break;
    }

    case 'V':
    {
        PyObject *obj = va_arg(*vargs, PyObject *);
        const char *str = va_arg(*vargs, const char *);
        if (obj) {
            assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(obj));
            if (unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, obj, width, precision) == -1)
                return NULL;
        }
        else {
            assert(str != NULL);
            if (unicode_fromformat_write_cstr(writer, str, width, precision) < 0)
                return NULL;
        }
        break;
    }

    case 'S':
    {
        PyObject *obj = va_arg(*vargs, PyObject *);
        PyObject *str;
        assert(obj);
        str = PyObject_Str(obj);
        if (!str)
            return NULL;
        if (unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, str, width, precision) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(str);
            return NULL;
        }
        Py_DECREF(str);
        break;
    }

    case 'R':
    {
        PyObject *obj = va_arg(*vargs, PyObject *);
        PyObject *repr;
        assert(obj);
        repr = PyObject_Repr(obj);
        if (!repr)
            return NULL;
        if (unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, repr, width, precision) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(repr);
            return NULL;
        }
        Py_DECREF(repr);
        break;
    }

    case 'A':
    {
        PyObject *obj = va_arg(*vargs, PyObject *);
        PyObject *ascii;
        assert(obj);
        ascii = PyObject_ASCII(obj);
        if (!ascii)
            return NULL;
        if (unicode_fromformat_write_str(writer, ascii, width, precision) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(ascii);
            return NULL;
        }
        Py_DECREF(ascii);
        break;
    }

    case '%':
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, '%') < 0)
            return NULL;
        break;

    default:
        /* if we stumble upon an unknown formatting code, copy the rest
           of the format string to the output string. (we cannot just
           skip the code, since there's no way to know what's in the
           argument list) */
        len = strlen(p);
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(writer, p, len) == -1)
            return NULL;
        f = p+len;
        return f;
    }

    f++;
    return f;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)
{
    va_list vargs2;
    const char *f;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = strlen(format) + 100;
    writer.overallocate = 1;

    /* va_list may be an array (of 1 item) on some platforms (ex: AMD64).
       Copy it to be able to pass a reference to a subfunction. */
    Py_VA_COPY(vargs2, vargs);

    for (f = format; *f; ) {
        if (*f == '%') {
            f = unicode_fromformat_arg(&writer, f, &vargs2);
            if (f == NULL)
                goto fail;
        }
        else {
            const char *p;
            Py_ssize_t len;

            p = f;
            do
            {
                if ((unsigned char)*p > 127) {
                    PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                        "PyUnicode_FromFormatV() expects an ASCII-encoded format "
                        "string, got a non-ASCII byte: 0x%02x",
                        (unsigned char)*p);
                    return NULL;
                }
                p++;
            }
            while (*p != '\0' && *p != '%');
            len = p - f;

            if (*p == '\0')
                writer.overallocate = 0;

            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, f, len) < 0)
                goto fail;

            f = p;
        }
    }
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  fail:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)
{
    PyObject* ret;
    va_list vargs;

#ifdef HAVE_STDARG_PROTOTYPES
    va_start(vargs, format);
#else
    va_start(vargs);
#endif
    ret = PyUnicode_FromFormatV(format, vargs);
    va_end(vargs);
    return ret;
}

#ifdef HAVE_WCHAR_H

/* Helper function for PyUnicode_AsWideChar() and PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
   convert a Unicode object to a wide character string.

   - If w is NULL: return the number of wide characters (including the null
     character) required to convert the unicode object. Ignore size argument.

   - Otherwise: return the number of wide characters (excluding the null
     character) written into w. Write at most size wide characters (including
     the null character). */
static Py_ssize_t
unicode_aswidechar(PyObject *unicode,
                   wchar_t *w,
                   Py_ssize_t size)
{
    Py_ssize_t res;
    const wchar_t *wstr;

    wstr = PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(unicode, &res);
    if (wstr == NULL)
        return -1;

    if (w != NULL) {
        if (size > res)
            size = res + 1;
        else
            res = size;
        Py_MEMCPY(w, wstr, size * sizeof(wchar_t));
        return res;
    }
    else
        return res + 1;
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_AsWideChar(PyObject *unicode,
                     wchar_t *w,
                     Py_ssize_t size)
{
    if (unicode == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return -1;
    }
    return unicode_aswidechar(unicode, w, size);
}

wchar_t*
PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(PyObject *unicode,
                           Py_ssize_t *size)
{
    wchar_t* buffer;
    Py_ssize_t buflen;

    if (unicode == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }

    buflen = unicode_aswidechar(unicode, NULL, 0);
    if (buflen == -1)
        return NULL;
    buffer = PyMem_NEW(wchar_t, buflen);
    if (buffer == NULL) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }
    buflen = unicode_aswidechar(unicode, buffer, buflen);
    if (buflen == -1) {
        PyMem_FREE(buffer);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (size != NULL)
        *size = buflen;
    return buffer;
}

#endif /* HAVE_WCHAR_H */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(int ordinal)
{
    if (ordinal < 0 || ordinal > MAX_UNICODE) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                        "chr() arg not in range(0x110000)");
        return NULL;
    }

    return unicode_char((Py_UCS4)ordinal);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
{
    /* XXX Perhaps we should make this API an alias of
       PyObject_Str() instead ?! */
    if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(obj)) {
        if (PyUnicode_READY(obj) == -1)
            return NULL;
        Py_INCREF(obj);
        return obj;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_Check(obj)) {
        /* For a Unicode subtype that's not a Unicode object,
           return a true Unicode object with the same data. */
        return _PyUnicode_Copy(obj);
    }
    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                 "Can't convert '%.100s' object to str implicitly",
                 Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj,
                            const char *encoding,
                            const char *errors)
{
    Py_buffer buffer;
    PyObject *v;

    if (obj == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }

    /* Decoding bytes objects is the most common case and should be fast */
    if (PyBytes_Check(obj)) {
        if (PyBytes_GET_SIZE(obj) == 0)
            _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        v = PyUnicode_Decode(
                PyBytes_AS_STRING(obj), PyBytes_GET_SIZE(obj),
                encoding, errors);
        return v;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_Check(obj)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "decoding str is not supported");
        return NULL;
    }

    /* Retrieve a bytes buffer view through the PEP 3118 buffer interface */
    if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &buffer, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "decoding to str: need a bytes-like object, %.80s found",
                     Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name);
        return NULL;
    }

    if (buffer.len == 0) {
        PyBuffer_Release(&buffer);
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    v = PyUnicode_Decode((char*) buffer.buf, buffer.len, encoding, errors);
    PyBuffer_Release(&buffer);
    return v;
}

/* Normalize an encoding name: C implementation of
   encodings.normalize_encoding(). Return 1 on success, or 0 on error (encoding
   is longer than lower_len-1). */
int
_Py_normalize_encoding(const char *encoding,
                       char *lower,
                       size_t lower_len)
{
    const char *e;
    char *l;
    char *l_end;
    int punct;

    assert(encoding != NULL);

    e = encoding;
    l = lower;
    l_end = &lower[lower_len - 1];
    punct = 0;
    while (1) {
        char c = *e;
        if (c == 0) {
            break;
        }

        if (Py_ISALNUM(c) || c == '.') {
            if (punct && l != lower) {
                if (l == l_end) {
                    return 0;
                }
                *l++ = '_';
            }
            punct = 0;

            if (l == l_end) {
                return 0;
            }
            *l++ = Py_TOLOWER(c);
        }
        else {
            punct = 1;
        }

        e++;
    }
    *l = '\0';
    return 1;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Decode(const char *s,
                 Py_ssize_t size,
                 const char *encoding,
                 const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *buffer = NULL, *unicode;
    Py_buffer info;
    char buflower[11];   /* strlen("iso-8859-1\0") == 11, longest shortcut */

    if (encoding == NULL) {
        return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(s, size, errors, NULL);
    }

    /* Shortcuts for common default encodings */
    if (_Py_normalize_encoding(encoding, buflower, sizeof(buflower))) {
        char *lower = buflower;

        /* Fast paths */
        if (lower[0] == 'u' && lower[1] == 't' && lower[2] == 'f') {
            lower += 3;
            if (*lower == '_') {
                /* Match "utf8" and "utf_8" */
                lower++;
            }

            if (lower[0] == '8' && lower[1] == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(s, size, errors, NULL);
            }
            else if (lower[0] == '1' && lower[1] == '6' && lower[2] == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(s, size, errors, 0);
            }
            else if (lower[0] == '3' && lower[1] == '2' && lower[2] == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(s, size, errors, 0);
            }
        }
        else {
            if (strcmp(lower, "ascii") == 0
                || strcmp(lower, "us_ascii") == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(s, size, errors);
            }
    #ifdef MS_WINDOWS
            else if (strcmp(lower, "mbcs") == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(s, size, errors);
            }
    #endif
            else if (strcmp(lower, "latin1") == 0
                     || strcmp(lower, "latin_1") == 0
                     || strcmp(lower, "iso_8859_1") == 0
                     || strcmp(lower, "iso8859_1") == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(s, size, errors);
            }
        }
    }

    /* Decode via the codec registry */
    buffer = NULL;
    if (PyBuffer_FillInfo(&info, NULL, (void *)s, size, 1, PyBUF_FULL_RO) < 0)
        goto onError;
    buffer = PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(&info);
    if (buffer == NULL)
        goto onError;
    unicode = _PyCodec_DecodeText(buffer, encoding, errors);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "'%.400s' decoder returned '%.400s' instead of 'str'; "
                     "use codecs.decode() to decode to arbitrary types",
                     encoding,
                     Py_TYPE(unicode)->tp_name, Py_TYPE(unicode)->tp_name);
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        goto onError;
    }
    Py_DECREF(buffer);
    return unicode_result(unicode);

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(buffer);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(PyObject *unicode,
                          const char *encoding,
                          const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        goto onError;
    }

    if (encoding == NULL)
        encoding = PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding();

    /* Decode via the codec registry */
    v = PyCodec_Decode(unicode, encoding, errors);
    if (v == NULL)
        goto onError;
    return unicode_result(v);

  onError:
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(PyObject *unicode,
                           const char *encoding,
                           const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        goto onError;
    }

    if (encoding == NULL)
        encoding = PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding();

    /* Decode via the codec registry */
    v = PyCodec_Decode(unicode, encoding, errors);
    if (v == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(v)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "'%.400s' decoder returned '%.400s' instead of 'str'; "
                     "use codecs.decode() to decode to arbitrary types",
                     encoding,
                     Py_TYPE(unicode)->tp_name, Py_TYPE(unicode)->tp_name);
        Py_DECREF(v);
        goto onError;
    }
    return unicode_result(v);

  onError:
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Encode(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                 Py_ssize_t size,
                 const char *encoding,
                 const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v, *unicode;

    unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    v = PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(unicode, encoding, errors);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return v;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(PyObject *unicode,
                          const char *encoding,
                          const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        goto onError;
    }

    if (encoding == NULL)
        encoding = PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding();

    /* Encode via the codec registry */
    v = PyCodec_Encode(unicode, encoding, errors);
    if (v == NULL)
        goto onError;
    return v;

  onError:
    return NULL;
}

static size_t
wcstombs_errorpos(const wchar_t *wstr)
{
    size_t len;
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
    wchar_t buf[3];
#else
    wchar_t buf[2];
#endif
    char outbuf[MB_LEN_MAX];
    const wchar_t *start, *previous;

#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
    buf[2] = 0;
#else
    buf[1] = 0;
#endif
    start = wstr;
    while (*wstr != L'\0')
    {
        previous = wstr;
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(wstr[0])
            && Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(wstr[1]))
        {
            buf[0] = wstr[0];
            buf[1] = wstr[1];
            wstr += 2;
        }
        else {
            buf[0] = *wstr;
            buf[1] = 0;
            wstr++;
        }
#else
        buf[0] = *wstr;
        wstr++;
#endif
        len = wcstombs(outbuf, buf, sizeof(outbuf));
        if (len == (size_t)-1)
            return previous - start;
    }

    /* failed to find the unencodable character */
    return 0;
}

static int
locale_error_handler(const char *errors, int *surrogateescape)
{
    _Py_error_handler error_handler = get_error_handler(errors);
    switch (error_handler)
    {
    case _Py_ERROR_STRICT:
        *surrogateescape = 0;
        return 0;
    case _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE:
        *surrogateescape = 1;
        return 0;
    default:
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                     "only 'strict' and 'surrogateescape' error handlers "
                     "are supported, not '%s'",
                     errors);
        return -1;
    }
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
{
    Py_ssize_t wlen, wlen2;
    wchar_t *wstr;
    PyObject *bytes = NULL;
    char *errmsg;
    PyObject *reason = NULL;
    PyObject *exc;
    size_t error_pos;
    int surrogateescape;

    if (locale_error_handler(errors, &surrogateescape) < 0)
        return NULL;

    wstr = PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(unicode, &wlen);
    if (wstr == NULL)
        return NULL;

    wlen2 = wcslen(wstr);
    if (wlen2 != wlen) {
        PyMem_Free(wstr);
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "embedded null character");
        return NULL;
    }

    if (surrogateescape) {
        /* "surrogateescape" error handler */
        char *str;

        str = Py_EncodeLocale(wstr, &error_pos);
        if (str == NULL) {
            if (error_pos == (size_t)-1) {
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                PyMem_Free(wstr);
                return NULL;
            }
            else {
                goto encode_error;
            }
        }
        PyMem_Free(wstr);

        bytes = PyBytes_FromString(str);
        PyMem_Free(str);
    }
    else {
        /* strict mode */
        size_t len, len2;

        len = wcstombs(NULL, wstr, 0);
        if (len == (size_t)-1) {
            error_pos = (size_t)-1;
            goto encode_error;
        }

        bytes = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, len);
        if (bytes == NULL) {
            PyMem_Free(wstr);
            return NULL;
        }

        len2 = wcstombs(PyBytes_AS_STRING(bytes), wstr, len+1);
        if (len2 == (size_t)-1 || len2 > len) {
            error_pos = (size_t)-1;
            goto encode_error;
        }
        PyMem_Free(wstr);
    }
    return bytes;

encode_error:
    errmsg = strerror(errno);
    assert(errmsg != NULL);

    if (error_pos == (size_t)-1)
        error_pos = wcstombs_errorpos(wstr);

    PyMem_Free(wstr);
    Py_XDECREF(bytes);

    if (errmsg != NULL) {
        size_t errlen;
        wstr = Py_DecodeLocale(errmsg, &errlen);
        if (wstr != NULL) {
            reason = PyUnicode_FromWideChar(wstr, errlen);
            PyMem_RawFree(wstr);
        } else
            errmsg = NULL;
    }
    if (errmsg == NULL)
        reason = PyUnicode_FromString(
            "wcstombs() encountered an unencodable "
            "wide character");
    if (reason == NULL)
        return NULL;

    exc = PyObject_CallFunction(PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError, "sOnnO",
                                "locale", unicode,
                                (Py_ssize_t)error_pos,
                                (Py_ssize_t)(error_pos+1),
                                reason);
    Py_DECREF(reason);
    if (exc != NULL) {
        PyCodec_StrictErrors(exc);
        Py_XDECREF(exc);
    }
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(PyObject *unicode)
{
#if defined(__APPLE__)
    return _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors);
#else
    PyInterpreterState *interp = PyThreadState_GET()->interp;
    /* Bootstrap check: if the filesystem codec is implemented in Python, we
       cannot use it to encode and decode filenames before it is loaded. Load
       the Python codec requires to encode at least its own filename. Use the C
       version of the locale codec until the codec registry is initialized and
       the Python codec is loaded.

       Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding is shared between all interpreters, we
       cannot only rely on it: check also interp->fscodec_initialized for
       subinterpreters. */
    if (Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding && interp->fscodec_initialized) {
        return PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(unicode,
                                         Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding,
                                         Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors);
    }
    else {
        return PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(unicode, Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors);
    }
#endif
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode,
                          const char *encoding,
                          const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v;
    char buflower[11];   /* strlen("iso_8859_1\0") == 11, longest shortcut */

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (encoding == NULL) {
        return _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, errors);
    }

    /* Shortcuts for common default encodings */
    if (_Py_normalize_encoding(encoding, buflower, sizeof(buflower))) {
        char *lower = buflower;

        /* Fast paths */
        if (lower[0] == 'u' && lower[1] == 't' && lower[2] == 'f') {
            lower += 3;
            if (*lower == '_') {
                /* Match "utf8" and "utf_8" */
                lower++;
            }

            if (lower[0] == '8' && lower[1] == 0) {
                return _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, errors);
            }
            else if (lower[0] == '1' && lower[1] == '6' && lower[2] == 0) {
                return _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(unicode, errors, 0);
            }
            else if (lower[0] == '3' && lower[1] == '2' && lower[2] == 0) {
                return _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(unicode, errors, 0);
            }
        }
        else {
            if (strcmp(lower, "ascii") == 0
                || strcmp(lower, "us_ascii") == 0) {
                return _PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(unicode, errors);
            }
#ifdef MS_WINDOWS
            else if (strcmp(lower, "mbcs") == 0) {
                return PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(CP_ACP, unicode, errors);
            }
#endif
            else if (strcmp(lower, "latin1") == 0 ||
                     strcmp(lower, "latin_1") == 0 ||
                     strcmp(lower, "iso_8859_1") == 0 ||
                     strcmp(lower, "iso8859_1") == 0) {
                return _PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(unicode, errors);
            }
        }
    }

    /* Encode via the codec registry */
    v = _PyCodec_EncodeText(unicode, encoding, errors);
    if (v == NULL)
        return NULL;

    /* The normal path */
    if (PyBytes_Check(v))
        return v;

    /* If the codec returns a buffer, raise a warning and convert to bytes */
    if (PyByteArray_Check(v)) {
        int error;
        PyObject *b;

        error = PyErr_WarnFormat(PyExc_RuntimeWarning, 1,
            "encoder %s returned bytearray instead of bytes; "
            "use codecs.encode() to encode to arbitrary types",
            encoding);
        if (error) {
            Py_DECREF(v);
            return NULL;
        }

        b = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(PyByteArray_AS_STRING(v), Py_SIZE(v));
        Py_DECREF(v);
        return b;
    }

    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                 "'%.400s' encoder returned '%.400s' instead of 'bytes'; "
                 "use codecs.encode() to encode to arbitrary types",
                 encoding,
                 Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name, Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name);
    Py_DECREF(v);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(PyObject *unicode,
                           const char *encoding,
                           const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        goto onError;
    }

    if (encoding == NULL)
        encoding = PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding();

    /* Encode via the codec registry */
    v = PyCodec_Encode(unicode, encoding, errors);
    if (v == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(v)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "'%.400s' encoder returned '%.400s' instead of 'str'; "
                     "use codecs.encode() to encode to arbitrary types",
                     encoding,
                     Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name, Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name);
        Py_DECREF(v);
        goto onError;
    }
    return v;

  onError:
    return NULL;
}

static size_t
mbstowcs_errorpos(const char *str, size_t len)
{
#ifdef HAVE_MBRTOWC
    const char *start = str;
    mbstate_t mbs;
    size_t converted;
    wchar_t ch;

    memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs);
    while (len)
    {
        converted = mbrtowc(&ch, str, len, &mbs);
        if (converted == 0)
            /* Reached end of string */
            break;
        if (converted == (size_t)-1 || converted == (size_t)-2) {
            /* Conversion error or incomplete character */
            return str - start;
        }
        else {
            str += converted;
            len -= converted;
        }
    }
    /* failed to find the undecodable byte sequence */
    return 0;
#endif
    return 0;
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(const char *str, Py_ssize_t len,
                              const char *errors)
{
    wchar_t smallbuf[256];
    size_t smallbuf_len = Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(smallbuf);
    wchar_t *wstr;
    size_t wlen, wlen2;
    PyObject *unicode;
    int surrogateescape;
    size_t error_pos;
    char *errmsg;
    PyObject *reason = NULL;   /* initialize to prevent gcc warning */
    PyObject *exc;

    if (locale_error_handler(errors, &surrogateescape) < 0)
        return NULL;

    if (str[len] != '\0' || (size_t)len != strlen(str))  {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "embedded null byte");
        return NULL;
    }

    if (surrogateescape) {
        /* "surrogateescape" error handler */
        wstr = Py_DecodeLocale(str, &wlen);
        if (wstr == NULL) {
            if (wlen == (size_t)-1)
                PyErr_NoMemory();
            else
                PyErr_SetFromErrno(PyExc_OSError);
            return NULL;
        }

        unicode = PyUnicode_FromWideChar(wstr, wlen);
        PyMem_RawFree(wstr);
    }
    else {
        /* strict mode */
#ifndef HAVE_BROKEN_MBSTOWCS
        wlen = mbstowcs(NULL, str, 0);
#else
        wlen = len;
#endif
        if (wlen == (size_t)-1)
            goto decode_error;
        if (wlen+1 <= smallbuf_len) {
            wstr = smallbuf;
        }
        else {
            wstr = PyMem_New(wchar_t, wlen+1);
            if (!wstr)
                return PyErr_NoMemory();
        }

        wlen2 = mbstowcs(wstr, str, wlen+1);
        if (wlen2 == (size_t)-1) {
            if (wstr != smallbuf)
                PyMem_Free(wstr);
            goto decode_error;
        }
#ifdef HAVE_BROKEN_MBSTOWCS
        assert(wlen2 == wlen);
#endif
        unicode = PyUnicode_FromWideChar(wstr, wlen2);
        if (wstr != smallbuf)
            PyMem_Free(wstr);
    }
    return unicode;

decode_error:
    reason = NULL;
    errmsg = strerror(errno);
    assert(errmsg != NULL);

    error_pos = mbstowcs_errorpos(str, len);
    if (errmsg != NULL) {
        size_t errlen;
        wstr = Py_DecodeLocale(errmsg, &errlen);
        if (wstr != NULL) {
            reason = PyUnicode_FromWideChar(wstr, errlen);
            PyMem_RawFree(wstr);
        }
    }
    if (reason == NULL)
        reason = PyUnicode_FromString(
            "mbstowcs() encountered an invalid multibyte sequence");
    if (reason == NULL)
        return NULL;

    exc = PyObject_CallFunction(PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError, "sy#nnO",
                                "locale", str, len,
                                (Py_ssize_t)error_pos,
                                (Py_ssize_t)(error_pos+1),
                                reason);
    Py_DECREF(reason);
    if (exc != NULL) {
        PyCodec_StrictErrors(exc);
        Py_XDECREF(exc);
    }
    return NULL;
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(const char *str, const char *errors)
{
    Py_ssize_t size = (Py_ssize_t)strlen(str);
    return PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(str, size, errors);
}


PyObject*
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(const char *s) {
    Py_ssize_t size = (Py_ssize_t)strlen(s);
    return PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(s, size);
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size)
{
#if defined(__APPLE__)
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(s, size, Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors, NULL);
#else
    PyInterpreterState *interp = PyThreadState_GET()->interp;
    /* Bootstrap check: if the filesystem codec is implemented in Python, we
       cannot use it to encode and decode filenames before it is loaded. Load
       the Python codec requires to encode at least its own filename. Use the C
       version of the locale codec until the codec registry is initialized and
       the Python codec is loaded.

       Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding is shared between all interpreters, we
       cannot only rely on it: check also interp->fscodec_initialized for
       subinterpreters. */
    if (Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding && interp->fscodec_initialized) {
        PyObject *res = PyUnicode_Decode(s, size,
                                Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding,
                                Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors);
#ifdef MS_WINDOWS
        if (!res && PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError)) {
            PyObject *exc, *val, *tb;
            PyErr_Fetch(&exc, &val, &tb);
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                "filesystem path bytes were not correctly encoded with '%s'. " \
                "Please report this at http://bugs.python.org/issue27781",
                Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding);
            _PyErr_ChainExceptions(exc, val, tb);
        }
#endif
        return res;
    }
    else {
        return PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(s, size, Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors);
    }
#endif
}


int
PyUnicode_FSConverter(PyObject* arg, void* addr)
{
    PyObject *path = NULL;
    PyObject *output = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t size;
    void *data;
    if (arg == NULL) {
        Py_DECREF(*(PyObject**)addr);
        *(PyObject**)addr = NULL;
        return 1;
    }
    path = PyOS_FSPath(arg);
    if (path == NULL) {
        return 0;
    }
    if (PyBytes_Check(path)) {
        output = path;
    }
    else {  // PyOS_FSPath() guarantees its returned value is bytes or str.
        output = PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(path);
        Py_DECREF(path);
        if (!output) {
            return 0;
        }
        assert(PyBytes_Check(output));
    }

    size = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(output);
    data = PyBytes_AS_STRING(output);
    if ((size_t)size != strlen(data)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "embedded null byte");
        Py_DECREF(output);
        return 0;
    }
    *(PyObject**)addr = output;
    return Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED;
}


int
PyUnicode_FSDecoder(PyObject* arg, void* addr)
{
    int is_buffer = 0;
    PyObject *path = NULL;
    PyObject *output = NULL;
    if (arg == NULL) {
        Py_DECREF(*(PyObject**)addr);
        return 1;
    }

    is_buffer = PyObject_CheckBuffer(arg);
    if (!is_buffer) {
        path = PyOS_FSPath(arg);
        if (path == NULL) {
            return 0;
        }
    }
    else {
        path = arg;
        Py_INCREF(arg);
    }

    if (PyUnicode_Check(path)) {
        if (PyUnicode_READY(path) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(path);
            return 0;
        }
        output = path;
    }
    else if (PyBytes_Check(path) || is_buffer) {
        PyObject *path_bytes = NULL;

        if (!PyBytes_Check(path) &&
            PyErr_WarnFormat(PyExc_DeprecationWarning, 1,
            "path should be string, bytes, or os.PathLike, not %.200s",
            Py_TYPE(arg)->tp_name)) {
                Py_DECREF(path);
            return 0;
        }
        path_bytes = PyBytes_FromObject(path);
        Py_DECREF(path);
        if (!path_bytes) {
            return 0;
        }
        output = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(PyBytes_AS_STRING(path_bytes),
                                                  PyBytes_GET_SIZE(path_bytes));
        Py_DECREF(path_bytes);
        if (!output) {
            return 0;
        }
    }
    else {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "path should be string, bytes, or os.PathLike, not %.200s",
                     Py_TYPE(arg)->tp_name);
        Py_DECREF(path);
        return 0;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(output) == -1) {
        Py_DECREF(output);
        return 0;
    }
    if (findchar(PyUnicode_DATA(output), PyUnicode_KIND(output),
                 PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(output), 0, 1) >= 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "embedded null character");
        Py_DECREF(output);
        return 0;
    }
    *(PyObject**)addr = output;
    return Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED;
}


char*
PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *psize)
{
    PyObject *bytes;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) == NULL) {
        assert(!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(unicode));
        bytes = _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, NULL);
        if (bytes == NULL)
            return NULL;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) = PyObject_MALLOC(PyBytes_GET_SIZE(bytes) + 1);
        if (_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode) == NULL) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            Py_DECREF(bytes);
            return NULL;
        }
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(bytes);
        Py_MEMCPY(_PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode),
                  PyBytes_AS_STRING(bytes),
                  _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode) + 1);
        Py_DECREF(bytes);
    }

    if (psize)
        *psize = PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode);
    return PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode);
}

char*
PyUnicode_AsUTF8(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(unicode, NULL);
}

Py_UNICODE *
PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)
{
    const unsigned char *one_byte;
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 4
    const Py_UCS2 *two_bytes;
#else
    const Py_UCS4 *four_bytes;
    const Py_UCS4 *ucs4_end;
    Py_ssize_t num_surrogates;
#endif
    wchar_t *w;
    wchar_t *wchar_end;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) == NULL) {
        /* Non-ASCII compact unicode object */
        assert(_PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) != 0);
        assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));

        if (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND) {
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 2
            four_bytes = PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode);
            ucs4_end = four_bytes + _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);
            num_surrogates = 0;

            for (; four_bytes < ucs4_end; ++four_bytes) {
                if (*four_bytes > 0xFFFF)
                    ++num_surrogates;
            }

            _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = (wchar_t *) PyObject_MALLOC(
                    sizeof(wchar_t) * (_PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) + 1 + num_surrogates));
            if (!_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)) {
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                return NULL;
            }
            _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) + num_surrogates;

            w = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
            wchar_end = w + _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
            four_bytes = PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(unicode);
            for (; four_bytes < ucs4_end; ++four_bytes, ++w) {
                if (*four_bytes > 0xFFFF) {
                    assert(*four_bytes <= MAX_UNICODE);
                    /* encode surrogate pair in this case */
                    *w++ = Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(*four_bytes);
                    *w   = Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(*four_bytes);
                }
                else
                    *w = *four_bytes;

                if (w > wchar_end) {
                    assert(0 && "Miscalculated string end");
                }
            }
            *w = 0;
#else
            /* sizeof(wchar_t) == 4 */
            Py_FatalError("Impossible unicode object state, wstr and str "
                          "should share memory already.");
            return NULL;
#endif
        }
        else {
            if ((size_t)_PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) >
                    PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / sizeof(wchar_t) - 1) {
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                return NULL;
            }
            _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = (wchar_t *) PyObject_MALLOC(sizeof(wchar_t) *
                                                  (_PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode) + 1));
            if (!_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode)) {
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                return NULL;
            }
            if (!PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(unicode))
                _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode) = _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);
            w = _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
            wchar_end = w + _PyUnicode_LENGTH(unicode);

            if (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
                one_byte = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(unicode);
                for (; w < wchar_end; ++one_byte, ++w)
                    *w = *one_byte;
                /* null-terminate the wstr */
                *w = 0;
            }
            else if (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 4
                two_bytes = PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(unicode);
                for (; w < wchar_end; ++two_bytes, ++w)
                    *w = *two_bytes;
                /* null-terminate the wstr */
                *w = 0;
#else
                /* sizeof(wchar_t) == 2 */
                PyObject_FREE(_PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode));
                _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode) = NULL;
                Py_FatalError("Impossible unicode object state, wstr "
                              "and str should share memory already.");
                return NULL;
#endif
            }
            else {
                assert(0 && "This should never happen.");
            }
        }
    }
    if (size != NULL)
        *size = PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(unicode);
    return _PyUnicode_WSTR(unicode);
}

Py_UNICODE *
PyUnicode_AsUnicode(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(unicode, NULL);
}


Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_GetSize(PyObject *unicode)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        goto onError;
    }
    return PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(unicode);

  onError:
    return -1;
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_GetLength(PyObject *unicode)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return -1;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return -1;
    return PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
}

Py_UCS4
PyUnicode_ReadChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)
{
    void *data;
    int kind;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode) || PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return (Py_UCS4)-1;
    }
    if (index < 0 || index >= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return (Py_UCS4)-1;
    }
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    return PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, index);
}

int
PyUnicode_WriteChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index, Py_UCS4 ch)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode) || !PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return -1;
    }
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    if (index < 0 || index >= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return -1;
    }
    if (unicode_check_modifiable(unicode))
        return -1;
    if (ch > PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "character out of range");
        return -1;
    }
    PyUnicode_WRITE(PyUnicode_KIND(unicode), PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
                    index, ch);
    return 0;
}

const char *
PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(void)
{
    return "utf-8";
}

/* create or adjust a UnicodeDecodeError */
static void
make_decode_exception(PyObject **exceptionObject,
                      const char *encoding,
                      const char *input, Py_ssize_t length,
                      Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                      const char *reason)
{
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL) {
        *exceptionObject = PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(
            encoding, input, length, startpos, endpos, reason);
    }
    else {
        if (PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(*exceptionObject, startpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(*exceptionObject, endpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(*exceptionObject, reason))
            goto onError;
    }
    return;

onError:
    Py_CLEAR(*exceptionObject);
}

#ifdef MS_WINDOWS
/* error handling callback helper:
   build arguments, call the callback and check the arguments,
   if no exception occurred, copy the replacement to the output
   and adjust various state variables.
   return 0 on success, -1 on error
*/

static int
unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_wchar(
    const char *errors, PyObject **errorHandler,
    const char *encoding, const char *reason,
    const char **input, const char **inend, Py_ssize_t *startinpos,
    Py_ssize_t *endinpos, PyObject **exceptionObject, const char **inptr,
    PyObject **output, Py_ssize_t *outpos)
{
    static const char *argparse = "O!n;decoding error handler must return (str, int) tuple";

    PyObject *restuple = NULL;
    PyObject *repunicode = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t outsize;
    Py_ssize_t insize;
    Py_ssize_t requiredsize;
    Py_ssize_t newpos;
    PyObject *inputobj = NULL;
    wchar_t *repwstr;
    Py_ssize_t repwlen;

    assert (_PyUnicode_KIND(*output) == PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND);
    outsize = _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(*output);

    if (*errorHandler == NULL) {
        *errorHandler = PyCodec_LookupError(errors);
        if (*errorHandler == NULL)
            goto onError;
    }

    make_decode_exception(exceptionObject,
        encoding,
        *input, *inend - *input,
        *startinpos, *endinpos,
        reason);
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL)
        goto onError;

    restuple = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(*errorHandler, *exceptionObject, NULL);
    if (restuple == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyTuple_Check(restuple)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, &argparse[4]);
        goto onError;
    }
    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(restuple, argparse, &PyUnicode_Type, &repunicode, &newpos))
        goto onError;

    /* Copy back the bytes variables, which might have been modified by the
       callback */
    inputobj = PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(*exceptionObject);
    if (!inputobj)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyBytes_Check(inputobj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, "exception attribute object must be bytes");
    }
    *input = PyBytes_AS_STRING(inputobj);
    insize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(inputobj);
    *inend = *input + insize;
    /* we can DECREF safely, as the exception has another reference,
       so the object won't go away. */
    Py_DECREF(inputobj);

    if (newpos<0)
        newpos = insize+newpos;
    if (newpos<0 || newpos>insize) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_IndexError, "position %zd from error handler out of bounds", newpos);
        goto onError;
    }

    repwstr = PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(repunicode, &repwlen);
    if (repwstr == NULL)
        goto onError;
    /* need more space? (at least enough for what we
       have+the replacement+the rest of the string (starting
       at the new input position), so we won't have to check space
       when there are no errors in the rest of the string) */
    requiredsize = *outpos;
    if (requiredsize > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - repwlen)
        goto overflow;
    requiredsize += repwlen;
    if (requiredsize > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - (insize - newpos))
        goto overflow;
    requiredsize += insize - newpos;
    if (requiredsize > outsize) {
        if (outsize <= PY_SSIZE_T_MAX/2 && requiredsize < 2*outsize)
            requiredsize = 2*outsize;
        if (unicode_resize(output, requiredsize) < 0)
            goto onError;
    }
    wcsncpy(_PyUnicode_WSTR(*output) + *outpos, repwstr, repwlen);
    *outpos += repwlen;
    *endinpos = newpos;
    *inptr = *input + newpos;

    /* we made it! */
    Py_XDECREF(restuple);
    return 0;

  overflow:
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                    "decoded result is too long for a Python string");

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(restuple);
    return -1;
}
#endif   /* MS_WINDOWS */

static int
unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
    const char *errors, PyObject **errorHandler,
    const char *encoding, const char *reason,
    const char **input, const char **inend, Py_ssize_t *startinpos,
    Py_ssize_t *endinpos, PyObject **exceptionObject, const char **inptr,
    _PyUnicodeWriter *writer /* PyObject **output, Py_ssize_t *outpos */)
{
    static const char *argparse = "O!n;decoding error handler must return (str, int) tuple";

    PyObject *restuple = NULL;
    PyObject *repunicode = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t insize;
    Py_ssize_t newpos;
    Py_ssize_t replen;
    PyObject *inputobj = NULL;

    if (*errorHandler == NULL) {
        *errorHandler = PyCodec_LookupError(errors);
        if (*errorHandler == NULL)
            goto onError;
    }

    make_decode_exception(exceptionObject,
        encoding,
        *input, *inend - *input,
        *startinpos, *endinpos,
        reason);
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL)
        goto onError;

    restuple = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(*errorHandler, *exceptionObject, NULL);
    if (restuple == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyTuple_Check(restuple)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, &argparse[4]);
        goto onError;
    }
    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(restuple, argparse, &PyUnicode_Type, &repunicode, &newpos))
        goto onError;

    /* Copy back the bytes variables, which might have been modified by the
       callback */
    inputobj = PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(*exceptionObject);
    if (!inputobj)
        goto onError;
    if (!PyBytes_Check(inputobj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, "exception attribute object must be bytes");
    }
    *input = PyBytes_AS_STRING(inputobj);
    insize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(inputobj);
    *inend = *input + insize;
    /* we can DECREF safely, as the exception has another reference,
       so the object won't go away. */
    Py_DECREF(inputobj);

    if (newpos<0)
        newpos = insize+newpos;
    if (newpos<0 || newpos>insize) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_IndexError, "position %zd from error handler out of bounds", newpos);
        goto onError;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(repunicode) < 0)
        goto onError;
    replen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(repunicode);
    if (replen > 1) {
        writer->min_length += replen - 1;
        writer->overallocate = 1;
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, writer->min_length,
                            PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(repunicode)) == -1)
            goto onError;
    }
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, repunicode) == -1)
        goto onError;

    *endinpos = newpos;
    *inptr = *input + newpos;

    /* we made it! */
    Py_XDECREF(restuple);
    return 0;

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(restuple);
    return -1;
}

/* --- UTF-7 Codec -------------------------------------------------------- */

/* See RFC2152 for details.  We encode conservatively and decode liberally. */

/* Three simple macros defining base-64. */

/* Is c a base-64 character? */

#define IS_BASE64(c) \
    (((c) >= 'A' && (c) <= 'Z') ||     \
     ((c) >= 'a' && (c) <= 'z') ||     \
     ((c) >= '0' && (c) <= '9') ||     \
     (c) == '+' || (c) == '/')

/* given that c is a base-64 character, what is its base-64 value? */

#define FROM_BASE64(c)                                                  \
    (((c) >= 'A' && (c) <= 'Z') ? (c) - 'A' :                           \
     ((c) >= 'a' && (c) <= 'z') ? (c) - 'a' + 26 :                      \
     ((c) >= '0' && (c) <= '9') ? (c) - '0' + 52 :                      \
     (c) == '+' ? 62 : 63)

/* What is the base-64 character of the bottom 6 bits of n? */

#define TO_BASE64(n)  \
    ("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"[(n) & 0x3f])

/* DECODE_DIRECT: this byte encountered in a UTF-7 string should be
 * decoded as itself.  We are permissive on decoding; the only ASCII
 * byte not decoding to itself is the + which begins a base64
 * string. */

#define DECODE_DIRECT(c)                                \
    ((c) <= 127 && (c) != '+')

/* The UTF-7 encoder treats ASCII characters differently according to
 * whether they are Set D, Set O, Whitespace, or special (i.e. none of
 * the above).  See RFC2152.  This array identifies these different
 * sets:
 * 0 : "Set D"
 *     alphanumeric and '(),-./:?
 * 1 : "Set O"
 *     !"#$%&*;<=>@[]^_`{|}
 * 2 : "whitespace"
 *     ht nl cr sp
 * 3 : special (must be base64 encoded)
 *     everything else (i.e. +\~ and non-printing codes 0-8 11-12 14-31 127)
 */

static
char utf7_category[128] = {
/* nul soh stx etx eot enq ack bel bs  ht  nl  vt  np  cr  so  si  */
    3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  2,  2,  3,  3,  2,  3,  3,
/* dle dc1 dc2 dc3 dc4 nak syn etb can em  sub esc fs  gs  rs  us  */
    3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,
/* sp   !   "   #   $   %   &   '   (   )   *   +   ,   -   .   /  */
    2,  1,  1,  1,  1,  1,  1,  0,  0,  0,  1,  3,  0,  0,  0,  0,
/*  0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   :   ;   <   =   >   ?  */
    0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  1,  1,  1,  1,  0,
/*  @   A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   J   K   L   M   N   O  */
    1,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,
/*  P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W   X   Y   Z   [   \   ]   ^   _  */
    0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  1,  3,  1,  1,  1,
/*  `   a   b   c   d   e   f   g   h   i   j   k   l   m   n   o  */
    1,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,
/*  p   q   r   s   t   u   v   w   x   y   z   {   |   }   ~  del */
    0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  1,  1,  1,  3,  3,
};

/* ENCODE_DIRECT: this character should be encoded as itself.  The
 * answer depends on whether we are encoding set O as itself, and also
 * on whether we are encoding whitespace as itself.  RFC2152 makes it
 * clear that the answers to these questions vary between
 * applications, so this code needs to be flexible.  */

#define ENCODE_DIRECT(c, directO, directWS)             \
    ((c) < 128 && (c) > 0 &&                            \
     ((utf7_category[(c)] == 0) ||                      \
      (directWS && (utf7_category[(c)] == 2)) ||        \
      (directO && (utf7_category[(c)] == 1))))

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(const char *s,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     const char *errors)
{
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(s, size, errors, NULL);
}

/* The decoder.  The only state we preserve is our read position,
 * i.e. how many characters we have consumed.  So if we end in the
 * middle of a shift sequence we have to back off the read position
 * and the output to the beginning of the sequence, otherwise we lose
 * all the shift state (seen bits, number of bits seen, high
 * surrogate). */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(const char *s,
                             Py_ssize_t size,
                             const char *errors,
                             Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    const char *e;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const char *errmsg = "";
    int inShift = 0;
    Py_ssize_t shiftOutStart;
    unsigned int base64bits = 0;
    unsigned long base64buffer = 0;
    Py_UCS4 surrogate = 0;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;

    if (size == 0) {
        if (consumed)
            *consumed = 0;
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    /* Start off assuming it's all ASCII. Widen later as necessary. */
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = size;

    shiftOutStart = 0;
    e = s + size;

    while (s < e) {
        Py_UCS4 ch;
      restart:
        ch = (unsigned char) *s;

        if (inShift) { /* in a base-64 section */
            if (IS_BASE64(ch)) { /* consume a base-64 character */
                base64buffer = (base64buffer << 6) | FROM_BASE64(ch);
                base64bits += 6;
                s++;
                if (base64bits >= 16) {
                    /* we have enough bits for a UTF-16 value */
                    Py_UCS4 outCh = (Py_UCS4)(base64buffer >> (base64bits-16));
                    base64bits -= 16;
                    base64buffer &= (1 << base64bits) - 1; /* clear high bits */
                    assert(outCh <= 0xffff);
                    if (surrogate) {
                        /* expecting a second surrogate */
                        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(outCh)) {
                            Py_UCS4 ch2 = Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(surrogate, outCh);
                            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch2) < 0)
                                goto onError;
                            surrogate = 0;
                            continue;
                        }
                        else {
                            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, surrogate) < 0)
                                goto onError;
                            surrogate = 0;
                        }
                    }
                    if (Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(outCh)) {
                        /* first surrogate */
                        surrogate = outCh;
                    }
                    else {
                        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, outCh) < 0)
                            goto onError;
                    }
                }
            }
            else { /* now leaving a base-64 section */
                inShift = 0;
                if (base64bits > 0) { /* left-over bits */
                    if (base64bits >= 6) {
                        /* We've seen at least one base-64 character */
                        s++;
                        errmsg = "partial character in shift sequence";
                        goto utf7Error;
                    }
                    else {
                        /* Some bits remain; they should be zero */
                        if (base64buffer != 0) {
                            s++;
                            errmsg = "non-zero padding bits in shift sequence";
                            goto utf7Error;
                        }
                    }
                }
                if (surrogate && DECODE_DIRECT(ch)) {
                    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, surrogate) < 0)
                        goto onError;
                }
                surrogate = 0;
                if (ch == '-') {
                    /* '-' is absorbed; other terminating
                       characters are preserved */
                    s++;
                }
            }
        }
        else if ( ch == '+' ) {
            startinpos = s-starts;
            s++; /* consume '+' */
            if (s < e && *s == '-') { /* '+-' encodes '+' */
                s++;
                if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, '+') < 0)
                    goto onError;
            }
            else { /* begin base64-encoded section */
                inShift = 1;
                surrogate = 0;
                shiftOutStart = writer.pos;
                base64bits = 0;
                base64buffer = 0;
            }
        }
        else if (DECODE_DIRECT(ch)) { /* character decodes as itself */
            s++;
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0)
                goto onError;
        }
        else {
            startinpos = s-starts;
            s++;
            errmsg = "unexpected special character";
            goto utf7Error;
        }
        continue;
utf7Error:
        endinpos = s-starts;
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                "utf7", errmsg,
                &starts, &e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                &writer))
            goto onError;
    }

    /* end of string */

    if (inShift && !consumed) { /* in shift sequence, no more to follow */
        /* if we're in an inconsistent state, that's an error */
        inShift = 0;
        if (surrogate ||
                (base64bits >= 6) ||
                (base64bits > 0 && base64buffer != 0)) {
            endinpos = size;
            if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                    errors, &errorHandler,
                    "utf7", "unterminated shift sequence",
                    &starts, &e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                    &writer))
                goto onError;
            if (s < e)
                goto restart;
        }
    }

    /* return state */
    if (consumed) {
        if (inShift) {
            *consumed = startinpos;
            if (writer.pos != shiftOutStart && writer.maxchar > 127) {
                PyObject *result = PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(
                        writer.kind, writer.data, shiftOutStart);
                Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
                Py_XDECREF(exc);
                _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
                return result;
            }
            writer.pos = shiftOutStart; /* back off output */
        }
        else {
            *consumed = s-starts;
        }
    }

    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    return NULL;
}


PyObject *
_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(PyObject *str,
                      int base64SetO,
                      int base64WhiteSpace,
                      const char *errors)
{
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    PyObject *v;
    int inShift = 0;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    unsigned int base64bits = 0;
    unsigned long base64buffer = 0;
    char * out;
    char * start;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return NULL;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);

    if (len == 0)
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, 0);

    /* It might be possible to tighten this worst case */
    if (len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / 8)
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    v = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, len * 8);
    if (v == NULL)
        return NULL;

    start = out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
    for (i = 0; i < len; ++i) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        if (inShift) {
            if (ENCODE_DIRECT(ch, !base64SetO, !base64WhiteSpace)) {
                /* shifting out */
                if (base64bits) { /* output remaining bits */
                    *out++ = TO_BASE64(base64buffer << (6-base64bits));
                    base64buffer = 0;
                    base64bits = 0;
                }
                inShift = 0;
                /* Characters not in the BASE64 set implicitly unshift the sequence
                   so no '-' is required, except if the character is itself a '-' */
                if (IS_BASE64(ch) || ch == '-') {
                    *out++ = '-';
                }
                *out++ = (char) ch;
            }
            else {
                goto encode_char;
            }
        }
        else { /* not in a shift sequence */
            if (ch == '+') {
                *out++ = '+';
                        *out++ = '-';
            }
            else if (ENCODE_DIRECT(ch, !base64SetO, !base64WhiteSpace)) {
                *out++ = (char) ch;
            }
            else {
                *out++ = '+';
                inShift = 1;
                goto encode_char;
            }
        }
        continue;
encode_char:
        if (ch >= 0x10000) {
            assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);

            /* code first surrogate */
            base64bits += 16;
            base64buffer = (base64buffer << 16) | Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch);
            while (base64bits >= 6) {
                *out++ = TO_BASE64(base64buffer >> (base64bits-6));
                base64bits -= 6;
            }
            /* prepare second surrogate */
            ch = Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(ch);
        }
        base64bits += 16;
        base64buffer = (base64buffer << 16) | ch;
        while (base64bits >= 6) {
            *out++ = TO_BASE64(base64buffer >> (base64bits-6));
            base64bits -= 6;
        }
    }
    if (base64bits)
        *out++= TO_BASE64(base64buffer << (6-base64bits) );
    if (inShift)
        *out++ = '-';
    if (_PyBytes_Resize(&v, out - start) < 0)
        return NULL;
    return v;
}
PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     int base64SetO,
                     int base64WhiteSpace,
                     const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *tmp = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (tmp == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(tmp, base64SetO,
                                   base64WhiteSpace, errors);
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return result;
}

#undef IS_BASE64
#undef FROM_BASE64
#undef TO_BASE64
#undef DECODE_DIRECT
#undef ENCODE_DIRECT

/* --- UTF-8 Codec -------------------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(const char *s,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     const char *errors)
{
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(s, size, errors, NULL);
}

#include "stringlib/asciilib.h"
#include "stringlib/codecs.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs1lib.h"
#include "stringlib/codecs.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs2lib.h"
#include "stringlib/codecs.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

#include "stringlib/ucs4lib.h"
#include "stringlib/codecs.h"
#include "stringlib/undef.h"

/* Mask to quickly check whether a C 'long' contains a
   non-ASCII, UTF8-encoded char. */
#if (SIZEOF_LONG == 8)
# define ASCII_CHAR_MASK 0x8080808080808080UL
#elif (SIZEOF_LONG == 4)
# define ASCII_CHAR_MASK 0x80808080UL
#else
# error C 'long' size should be either 4 or 8!
#endif

static Py_ssize_t
ascii_decode(const char *start, const char *end, Py_UCS1 *dest)
{
    const char *p = start;
    const char *aligned_end = (const char *) _Py_ALIGN_DOWN(end, SIZEOF_LONG);

    /*
     * Issue #17237: m68k is a bit different from most architectures in
     * that objects do not use "natural alignment" - for example, int and
     * long are only aligned at 2-byte boundaries.  Therefore the assert()
     * won't work; also, tests have shown that skipping the "optimised
     * version" will even speed up m68k.
     */
#if !defined(__m68k__)
#if SIZEOF_LONG <= SIZEOF_VOID_P
    assert(_Py_IS_ALIGNED(dest, SIZEOF_LONG));
    if (_Py_IS_ALIGNED(p, SIZEOF_LONG)) {
        /* Fast path, see in STRINGLIB(utf8_decode) for
           an explanation. */
        /* Help allocation */
        const char *_p = p;
        Py_UCS1 * q = dest;
        while (_p < aligned_end) {
            unsigned long value = *(const unsigned long *) _p;
            if (value & ASCII_CHAR_MASK)
                break;
            *((unsigned long *)q) = value;
            _p += SIZEOF_LONG;
            q += SIZEOF_LONG;
        }
        p = _p;
        while (p < end) {
            if ((unsigned char)*p & 0x80)
                break;
            *q++ = *p++;
        }
        return p - start;
    }
#endif
#endif
    while (p < end) {
        /* Fast path, see in STRINGLIB(utf8_decode) in stringlib/codecs.h
           for an explanation. */
        if (_Py_IS_ALIGNED(p, SIZEOF_LONG)) {
            /* Help allocation */
            const char *_p = p;
            while (_p < aligned_end) {
                unsigned long value = *(unsigned long *) _p;
                if (value & ASCII_CHAR_MASK)
                    break;
                _p += SIZEOF_LONG;
            }
            p = _p;
            if (_p == end)
                break;
        }
        if ((unsigned char)*p & 0x80)
            break;
        ++p;
    }
    memcpy(dest, start, p - start);
    return p - start;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *s,
                             Py_ssize_t size,
                             const char *errors,
                             Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const char *starts = s;
    const char *end = s + size;

    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    const char *errmsg = "";
    PyObject *error_handler_obj = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    _Py_error_handler error_handler = _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN;

    if (size == 0) {
        if (consumed)
            *consumed = 0;
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    /* ASCII is equivalent to the first 128 ordinals in Unicode. */
    if (size == 1 && (unsigned char)s[0] < 128) {
        if (consumed)
            *consumed = 1;
        return get_latin1_char((unsigned char)s[0]);
    }

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = size;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) == -1)
        goto onError;

    writer.pos = ascii_decode(s, end, writer.data);
    s += writer.pos;
    while (s < end) {
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        int kind = writer.kind;

        if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(writer.buffer))
                ch = asciilib_utf8_decode(&s, end, writer.data, &writer.pos);
            else
                ch = ucs1lib_utf8_decode(&s, end, writer.data, &writer.pos);
        } else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            ch = ucs2lib_utf8_decode(&s, end, writer.data, &writer.pos);
        } else {
            assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
            ch = ucs4lib_utf8_decode(&s, end, writer.data, &writer.pos);
        }

        switch (ch) {
        case 0:
            if (s == end || consumed)
                goto End;
            errmsg = "unexpected end of data";
            startinpos = s - starts;
            endinpos = end - starts;
            break;
        case 1:
            errmsg = "invalid start byte";
            startinpos = s - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 1;
            break;
        case 2:
        case 3:
        case 4:
            errmsg = "invalid continuation byte";
            startinpos = s - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + ch - 1;
            break;
        default:
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0)
                goto onError;
            continue;
        }

        if (error_handler == _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN)
            error_handler = get_error_handler(errors);

        switch (error_handler) {
        case _Py_ERROR_IGNORE:
            s += (endinpos - startinpos);
            break;

        case _Py_ERROR_REPLACE:
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, 0xfffd) < 0)
                goto onError;
            s += (endinpos - startinpos);
            break;

        case _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE:
        {
            Py_ssize_t i;

            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(&writer, PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) < 0)
                goto onError;
            for (i=startinpos; i<endinpos; i++) {
                ch = (Py_UCS4)(unsigned char)(starts[i]);
                PyUnicode_WRITE(writer.kind, writer.data, writer.pos,
                                ch + 0xdc00);
                writer.pos++;
            }
            s += (endinpos - startinpos);
            break;
        }

        default:
            if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                    errors, &error_handler_obj,
                    "utf-8", errmsg,
                    &starts, &end, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                    &writer))
                goto onError;
        }
    }

End:
    if (consumed)
        *consumed = s - starts;

    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

onError:
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    return NULL;
}

#ifdef __APPLE__

/* Simplified UTF-8 decoder using surrogateescape error handler,
   used to decode the command line arguments on Mac OS X.

   Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string (use
   PyMem_RawFree() to free the memory), or NULL on memory allocation error. */

wchar_t*
_Py_DecodeUTF8_surrogateescape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size)
{
    const char *e;
    wchar_t *unicode;
    Py_ssize_t outpos;

    /* Note: size will always be longer than the resulting Unicode
       character count */
    if (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(wchar_t) < (size + 1))
        return NULL;
    unicode = PyMem_RawMalloc((size + 1) * sizeof(wchar_t));
    if (!unicode)
        return NULL;

    /* Unpack UTF-8 encoded data */
    e = s + size;
    outpos = 0;
    while (s < e) {
        Py_UCS4 ch;
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 4
        ch = ucs4lib_utf8_decode(&s, e, (Py_UCS4 *)unicode, &outpos);
#else
        ch = ucs2lib_utf8_decode(&s, e, (Py_UCS2 *)unicode, &outpos);
#endif
        if (ch > 0xFF) {
#if SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 4
            assert(0);
#else
            assert(Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch));
            /*  compute and append the two surrogates: */
            unicode[outpos++] = (wchar_t)Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch);
            unicode[outpos++] = (wchar_t)Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(ch);
#endif
        }
        else {
            if (!ch && s == e)
                break;
            /* surrogateescape */
            unicode[outpos++] = 0xDC00 + (unsigned char)*s++;
        }
    }
    unicode[outpos] = L'\0';
    return unicode;
}

#endif /* __APPLE__ */

/* Primary internal function which creates utf8 encoded bytes objects.

   Allocation strategy:  if the string is short, convert into a stack buffer
   and allocate exactly as much space needed at the end.  Else allocate the
   maximum possible needed (4 result bytes per Unicode character), and return
   the excess memory at the end.
*/
PyObject *
_PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
{
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t size;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode))
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(PyUnicode_UTF8(unicode),
                                         PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(unicode));

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);

    switch (kind) {
    default:
        assert(0);
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        /* the string cannot be ASCII, or PyUnicode_UTF8() would be set */
        assert(!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode));
        return ucs1lib_utf8_encoder(unicode, data, size, errors);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs2lib_utf8_encoder(unicode, data, size, errors);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs4lib_utf8_encoder(unicode, data, size, errors);
    }
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *v, *unicode;

    unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    v = _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, errors);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return v;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return _PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(unicode, NULL);
}

/* --- UTF-32 Codec ------------------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(const char *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors,
                      int *byteorder)
{
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(s, size, errors, byteorder, NULL);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(const char *s,
                              Py_ssize_t size,
                              const char *errors,
                              int *byteorder,
                              Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const unsigned char *q, *e;
    int le, bo = 0;       /* assume native ordering by default */
    const char *encoding;
    const char *errmsg = "";
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;

    q = (unsigned char *)s;
    e = q + size;

    if (byteorder)
        bo = *byteorder;

    /* Check for BOM marks (U+FEFF) in the input and adjust current
       byte order setting accordingly. In native mode, the leading BOM
       mark is skipped, in all other modes, it is copied to the output
       stream as-is (giving a ZWNBSP character). */
    if (bo == 0 && size >= 4) {
        Py_UCS4 bom = ((unsigned int)q[3] << 24) | (q[2] << 16) | (q[1] << 8) | q[0];
        if (bom == 0x0000FEFF) {
            bo = -1;
            q += 4;
        }
        else if (bom == 0xFFFE0000) {
            bo = 1;
            q += 4;
        }
        if (byteorder)
            *byteorder = bo;
    }

    if (q == e) {
        if (consumed)
            *consumed = size;
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

#ifdef WORDS_BIGENDIAN
    le = bo < 0;
#else
    le = bo <= 0;
#endif
    encoding = le ? "utf-32-le" : "utf-32-be";

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = (e - q + 3) / 4;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) == -1)
        goto onError;

    while (1) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = 0;
        Py_UCS4 maxch = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(writer.buffer);

        if (e - q >= 4) {
            enum PyUnicode_Kind kind = writer.kind;
            void *data = writer.data;
            const unsigned char *last = e - 4;
            Py_ssize_t pos = writer.pos;
            if (le) {
                do {
                    ch = ((unsigned int)q[3] << 24) | (q[2] << 16) | (q[1] << 8) | q[0];
                    if (ch > maxch)
                        break;
                    if (kind != PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND &&
                        Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch))
                        break;
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, pos++, ch);
                    q += 4;
                } while (q <= last);
            }
            else {
                do {
                    ch = ((unsigned int)q[0] << 24) | (q[1] << 16) | (q[2] << 8) | q[3];
                    if (ch > maxch)
                        break;
                    if (kind != PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND &&
                        Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch))
                        break;
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, pos++, ch);
                    q += 4;
                } while (q <= last);
            }
            writer.pos = pos;
        }

        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch)) {
            errmsg = "code point in surrogate code point range(0xd800, 0xe000)";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 4;
        }
        else if (ch <= maxch) {
            if (q == e || consumed)
                break;
            /* remaining bytes at the end? (size should be divisible by 4) */
            errmsg = "truncated data";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - starts;
            endinpos = ((const char *)e) - starts;
        }
        else {
            if (ch < 0x110000) {
                if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0)
                    goto onError;
                q += 4;
                continue;
            }
            errmsg = "code point not in range(0x110000)";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 4;
        }

        /* The remaining input chars are ignored if the callback
           chooses to skip the input */
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                encoding, errmsg,
                &starts, (const char **)&e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, (const char **)&q,
                &writer))
            goto onError;
    }

    if (consumed)
        *consumed = (const char *)q-starts;

    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(PyObject *str,
                       const char *errors,
                       int byteorder)
{
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    const void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    PyObject *v;
    uint32_t *out;
#if PY_LITTLE_ENDIAN
    int native_ordering = byteorder <= 0;
#else
    int native_ordering = byteorder >= 0;
#endif
    const char *encoding;
    Py_ssize_t nsize, pos;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    PyObject *rep = NULL;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(str)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return NULL;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);

    if (len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / 4 - (byteorder == 0))
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    nsize = len + (byteorder == 0);
    v = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, nsize * 4);
    if (v == NULL)
        return NULL;

    /* output buffer is 4-bytes aligned */
    assert(_Py_IS_ALIGNED(PyBytes_AS_STRING(v), 4));
    out = (uint32_t *)PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
    if (byteorder == 0)
        *out++ = 0xFEFF;
    if (len == 0)
        goto done;

    if (byteorder == -1)
        encoding = "utf-32-le";
    else if (byteorder == 1)
        encoding = "utf-32-be";
    else
        encoding = "utf-32";

    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        ucs1lib_utf32_encode((const Py_UCS1 *)data, len, &out, native_ordering);
        goto done;
    }

    pos = 0;
    while (pos < len) {
        Py_ssize_t repsize, moreunits;

        if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            pos += ucs2lib_utf32_encode((const Py_UCS2 *)data + pos, len - pos,
                                        &out, native_ordering);
        }
        else {
            assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
            pos += ucs4lib_utf32_encode((const Py_UCS4 *)data + pos, len - pos,
                                        &out, native_ordering);
        }
        if (pos == len)
            break;

        rep = unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                encoding, "surrogates not allowed",
                str, &exc, pos, pos + 1, &pos);
        if (!rep)
            goto error;

        if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
            repsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(rep);
            if (repsize & 3) {
                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding,
                                       str, pos - 1, pos,
                                       "surrogates not allowed");
                goto error;
            }
            moreunits = repsize / 4;
        }
        else {
            assert(PyUnicode_Check(rep));
            if (PyUnicode_READY(rep) < 0)
                goto error;
            moreunits = repsize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(rep);
            if (!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(rep)) {
                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding,
                                       str, pos - 1, pos,
                                       "surrogates not allowed");
                goto error;
            }
        }

        /* four bytes are reserved for each surrogate */
        if (moreunits > 1) {
            Py_ssize_t outpos = out - (uint32_t*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
            Py_ssize_t morebytes = 4 * (moreunits - 1);
            if (PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v) > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - morebytes) {
                /* integer overflow */
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                goto error;
            }
            if (_PyBytes_Resize(&v, PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v) + morebytes) < 0)
                goto error;
            out = (uint32_t*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v) + outpos;
        }

        if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
            Py_MEMCPY(out, PyBytes_AS_STRING(rep), repsize);
            out += moreunits;
        } else /* rep is unicode */ {
            assert(PyUnicode_KIND(rep) == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
            ucs1lib_utf32_encode(PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(rep), repsize,
                                 &out, native_ordering);
        }

        Py_CLEAR(rep);
    }

    /* Cut back to size actually needed. This is necessary for, for example,
       encoding of a string containing isolated surrogates and the 'ignore'
       handler is used. */
    nsize = (unsigned char*) out - (unsigned char*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
    if (nsize != PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v))
      _PyBytes_Resize(&v, nsize);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
  done:
    return v;
  error:
    Py_XDECREF(rep);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(v);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors,
                      int byteorder)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *tmp = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (tmp == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(tmp, errors, byteorder);
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(unicode, NULL, 0);
}

/* --- UTF-16 Codec ------------------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors,
                      int *byteorder)
{
    return PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(s, size, errors, byteorder, NULL);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *s,
                              Py_ssize_t size,
                              const char *errors,
                              int *byteorder,
                              Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const unsigned char *q, *e;
    int bo = 0;       /* assume native ordering by default */
    int native_ordering;
    const char *errmsg = "";
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    const char *encoding;

    q = (unsigned char *)s;
    e = q + size;

    if (byteorder)
        bo = *byteorder;

    /* Check for BOM marks (U+FEFF) in the input and adjust current
       byte order setting accordingly. In native mode, the leading BOM
       mark is skipped, in all other modes, it is copied to the output
       stream as-is (giving a ZWNBSP character). */
    if (bo == 0 && size >= 2) {
        const Py_UCS4 bom = (q[1] << 8) | q[0];
        if (bom == 0xFEFF) {
            q += 2;
            bo = -1;
        }
        else if (bom == 0xFFFE) {
            q += 2;
            bo = 1;
        }
        if (byteorder)
            *byteorder = bo;
    }

    if (q == e) {
        if (consumed)
            *consumed = size;
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

#if PY_LITTLE_ENDIAN
    native_ordering = bo <= 0;
    encoding = bo <= 0 ? "utf-16-le" : "utf-16-be";
#else
    native_ordering = bo >= 0;
    encoding = bo >= 0 ? "utf-16-be" : "utf-16-le";
#endif

    /* Note: size will always be longer than the resulting Unicode
       character count */
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = (e - q + 1) / 2;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) == -1)
        goto onError;

    while (1) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = 0;
        if (e - q >= 2) {
            int kind = writer.kind;
            if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
                if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(writer.buffer))
                    ch = asciilib_utf16_decode(&q, e,
                            (Py_UCS1*)writer.data, &writer.pos,
                            native_ordering);
                else
                    ch = ucs1lib_utf16_decode(&q, e,
                            (Py_UCS1*)writer.data, &writer.pos,
                            native_ordering);
            } else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
                ch = ucs2lib_utf16_decode(&q, e,
                        (Py_UCS2*)writer.data, &writer.pos,
                        native_ordering);
            } else {
                assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
                ch = ucs4lib_utf16_decode(&q, e,
                        (Py_UCS4*)writer.data, &writer.pos,
                        native_ordering);
            }
        }

        switch (ch)
        {
        case 0:
            /* remaining byte at the end? (size should be even) */
            if (q == e || consumed)
                goto End;
            errmsg = "truncated data";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - starts;
            endinpos = ((const char *)e) - starts;
            break;
            /* The remaining input chars are ignored if the callback
               chooses to skip the input */
        case 1:
            q -= 2;
            if (consumed)
                goto End;
            errmsg = "unexpected end of data";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - starts;
            endinpos = ((const char *)e) - starts;
            break;
        case 2:
            errmsg = "illegal encoding";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - 2 - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 2;
            break;
        case 3:
            errmsg = "illegal UTF-16 surrogate";
            startinpos = ((const char *)q) - 4 - starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 2;
            break;
        default:
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0)
                goto onError;
            continue;
        }

        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors,
                &errorHandler,
                encoding, errmsg,
                &starts,
                (const char **)&e,
                &startinpos,
                &endinpos,
                &exc,
                (const char **)&q,
                &writer))
            goto onError;
    }

End:
    if (consumed)
        *consumed = (const char *)q-starts;

    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(PyObject *str,
                       const char *errors,
                       int byteorder)
{
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    const void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    PyObject *v;
    unsigned short *out;
    Py_ssize_t pairs;
#if PY_BIG_ENDIAN
    int native_ordering = byteorder >= 0;
#else
    int native_ordering = byteorder <= 0;
#endif
    const char *encoding;
    Py_ssize_t nsize, pos;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    PyObject *rep = NULL;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(str)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return NULL;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);

    pairs = 0;
    if (kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND) {
        const Py_UCS4 *in = (const Py_UCS4 *)data;
        const Py_UCS4 *end = in + len;
        while (in < end) {
            if (*in++ >= 0x10000) {
                pairs++;
            }
        }
    }
    if (len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / 2 - pairs - (byteorder == 0)) {
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    }
    nsize = len + pairs + (byteorder == 0);
    v = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, nsize * 2);
    if (v == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }

    /* output buffer is 2-bytes aligned */
    assert(_Py_IS_ALIGNED(PyBytes_AS_STRING(v), 2));
    out = (unsigned short *)PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
    if (byteorder == 0) {
        *out++ = 0xFEFF;
    }
    if (len == 0) {
        goto done;
    }

    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        ucs1lib_utf16_encode((const Py_UCS1 *)data, len, &out, native_ordering);
        goto done;
    }

    if (byteorder < 0) {
        encoding = "utf-16-le";
    }
    else if (byteorder > 0) {
        encoding = "utf-16-be";
    }
    else {
        encoding = "utf-16";
    }

    pos = 0;
    while (pos < len) {
        Py_ssize_t repsize, moreunits;

        if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            pos += ucs2lib_utf16_encode((const Py_UCS2 *)data + pos, len - pos,
                                        &out, native_ordering);
        }
        else {
            assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
            pos += ucs4lib_utf16_encode((const Py_UCS4 *)data + pos, len - pos,
                                        &out, native_ordering);
        }
        if (pos == len)
            break;

        rep = unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                encoding, "surrogates not allowed",
                str, &exc, pos, pos + 1, &pos);
        if (!rep)
            goto error;

        if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
            repsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(rep);
            if (repsize & 1) {
                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding,
                                       str, pos - 1, pos,
                                       "surrogates not allowed");
                goto error;
            }
            moreunits = repsize / 2;
        }
        else {
            assert(PyUnicode_Check(rep));
            if (PyUnicode_READY(rep) < 0)
                goto error;
            moreunits = repsize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(rep);
            if (!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(rep)) {
                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding,
                                       str, pos - 1, pos,
                                       "surrogates not allowed");
                goto error;
            }
        }

        /* two bytes are reserved for each surrogate */
        if (moreunits > 1) {
            Py_ssize_t outpos = out - (unsigned short*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
            Py_ssize_t morebytes = 2 * (moreunits - 1);
            if (PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v) > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - morebytes) {
                /* integer overflow */
                PyErr_NoMemory();
                goto error;
            }
            if (_PyBytes_Resize(&v, PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v) + morebytes) < 0)
                goto error;
            out = (unsigned short*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v) + outpos;
        }

        if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
            Py_MEMCPY(out, PyBytes_AS_STRING(rep), repsize);
            out += moreunits;
        } else /* rep is unicode */ {
            assert(PyUnicode_KIND(rep) == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
            ucs1lib_utf16_encode(PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(rep), repsize,
                                 &out, native_ordering);
        }

        Py_CLEAR(rep);
    }

    /* Cut back to size actually needed. This is necessary for, for example,
    encoding of a string containing isolated surrogates and the 'ignore' handler
    is used. */
    nsize = (unsigned char*) out - (unsigned char*) PyBytes_AS_STRING(v);
    if (nsize != PyBytes_GET_SIZE(v))
      _PyBytes_Resize(&v, nsize);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
  done:
    return v;
  error:
    Py_XDECREF(rep);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(v);
    return NULL;
#undef STORECHAR
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors,
                      int byteorder)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *tmp = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (tmp == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(tmp, errors, byteorder);
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return _PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(unicode, NULL, 0);
}

/* --- Unicode Escape Codec ----------------------------------------------- */

static _PyUnicode_Name_CAPI *ucnhash_CAPI = NULL;

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *s,
                              Py_ssize_t size,
                              const char *errors)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const char *end;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;

    if (size == 0) {
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }
    /* Escaped strings will always be longer than the resulting
       Unicode string, so we start with size here and then reduce the
       length after conversion to the true value.
       (but if the error callback returns a long replacement string
       we'll have to allocate more space) */
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = size;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, size, 127) < 0) {
        goto onError;
    }

    end = s + size;
    while (s < end) {
        unsigned char c = (unsigned char) *s++;
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        int count;
        Py_ssize_t startinpos;
        Py_ssize_t endinpos;
        const char *message;

#define WRITE_ASCII_CHAR(ch)                                                  \
            do {                                                              \
                assert(ch <= 127);                                            \
                assert(writer.pos < writer.size);                             \
                PyUnicode_WRITE(writer.kind, writer.data, writer.pos++, ch);  \
            } while(0)

#define WRITE_CHAR(ch)                                                        \
            do {                                                              \
                if (ch <= writer.maxchar) {                                   \
                    assert(writer.pos < writer.size);                         \
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(writer.kind, writer.data, writer.pos++, ch); \
                }                                                             \
                else if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0) { \
                    goto onError;                                             \
                }                                                             \
            } while(0)

        /* Non-escape characters are interpreted as Unicode ordinals */
        if (c != '\\') {
            WRITE_CHAR(c);
            continue;
        }

        startinpos = s - starts - 1;
        /* \ - Escapes */
        if (s >= end) {
            message = "\\ at end of string";
            goto error;
        }
        c = (unsigned char) *s++;

        assert(writer.pos < writer.size);
        switch (c) {

            /* \x escapes */
        case '\n': continue;
        case '\\': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\\'); continue;
        case '\'': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\''); continue;
        case '\"': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\"'); continue;
        case 'b': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\b'); continue;
        /* FF */
        case 'f': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\014'); continue;
        case 't': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\t'); continue;
        case 'n': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\n'); continue;
        case 'r': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\r'); continue;
        /* VT */
        case 'v': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\013'); continue;
        /* BEL, not classic C */
        case 'a': WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\007'); continue;

            /* \OOO (octal) escapes */
        case '0': case '1': case '2': case '3':
        case '4': case '5': case '6': case '7':
            ch = c - '0';
            if (s < end && '0' <= *s && *s <= '7') {
                ch = (ch<<3) + *s++ - '0';
                if (s < end && '0' <= *s && *s <= '7') {
                    ch = (ch<<3) + *s++ - '0';
                }
            }
            WRITE_CHAR(ch);
            continue;

            /* hex escapes */
            /* \xXX */
        case 'x':
            count = 2;
            message = "truncated \\xXX escape";
            goto hexescape;

            /* \uXXXX */
        case 'u':
            count = 4;
            message = "truncated \\uXXXX escape";
            goto hexescape;

            /* \UXXXXXXXX */
        case 'U':
            count = 8;
            message = "truncated \\UXXXXXXXX escape";
        hexescape:
            for (ch = 0; count && s < end; ++s, --count) {
                c = (unsigned char)*s;
                ch <<= 4;
                if (c >= '0' && c <= '9') {
                    ch += c - '0';
                }
                else if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'f') {
                    ch += c - ('a' - 10);
                }
                else if (c >= 'A' && c <= 'F') {
                    ch += c - ('A' - 10);
                }
                else {
                    break;
                }
            }
            if (count) {
                goto error;
            }

            /* when we get here, ch is a 32-bit unicode character */
            if (ch > MAX_UNICODE) {
                message = "illegal Unicode character";
                goto error;
            }

            WRITE_CHAR(ch);
            continue;

            /* \N{name} */
        case 'N':
            if (ucnhash_CAPI == NULL) {
                /* load the unicode data module */
                ucnhash_CAPI = (_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI *)PyCapsule_Import(
                                                PyUnicodeData_CAPSULE_NAME, 1);
                if (ucnhash_CAPI == NULL) {
                    PyErr_SetString(
                        PyExc_UnicodeError,
                        "\\N escapes not supported (can't load unicodedata module)"
                        );
                    goto onError;
                }
            }

            message = "malformed \\N character escape";
            if (*s == '{') {
                const char *start = ++s;
                size_t namelen;
                /* look for the closing brace */
                while (s < end && *s != '}')
                    s++;
                namelen = s - start;
                if (namelen && s < end) {
                    /* found a name.  look it up in the unicode database */
                    s++;
                    ch = 0xffffffff; /* in case 'getcode' messes up */
                    if (namelen <= INT_MAX &&
                        ucnhash_CAPI->getcode(NULL, start, (int)namelen,
                                              &ch, 0)) {
                        assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);
                        WRITE_CHAR(ch);
                        continue;
                    }
                    message = "unknown Unicode character name";
                }
            }
            goto error;

        default:
            if (PyErr_WarnFormat(PyExc_DeprecationWarning, 1,
                                 "invalid escape sequence '\\%c'", c) < 0)
                goto onError;
            WRITE_ASCII_CHAR('\\');
            WRITE_CHAR(c);
            continue;
        }

      error:
        endinpos = s-starts;
        writer.min_length = end - s + writer.pos;
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                "unicodeescape", message,
                &starts, &end, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                &writer)) {
            goto onError;
        }
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) < 0) {
            goto onError;
        }

#undef WRITE_ASCII_CHAR
#undef WRITE_CHAR
    }

    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

/* Return a Unicode-Escape string version of the Unicode object.

   If quotes is true, the string is enclosed in u"" or u'' quotes as
   appropriate.

*/

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, len;
    PyObject *repr;
    char *p;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t expandsize;

    /* Initial allocation is based on the longest-possible character
       escape.

       For UCS1 strings it's '\xxx', 4 bytes per source character.
       For UCS2 strings it's '\uxxxx', 6 bytes per source character.
       For UCS4 strings it's '\U00xxxxxx', 10 bytes per source character.
    */

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1) {
        return NULL;
    }

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (len == 0) {
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, 0);
    }

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    /* 4 byte characters can take up 10 bytes, 2 byte characters can take up 6
       bytes, and 1 byte characters 4. */
    expandsize = kind * 2 + 2;
    if (len > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - 2 - 1) / expandsize) {
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    }
    repr = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, 2 + expandsize * len + 1);
    if (repr == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }

    p = PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr);
    for (i = 0; i < len; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        /* U+0000-U+00ff range */
        if (ch < 0x100) {
            if (ch >= ' ' && ch < 127) {
                if (ch != '\\') {
                    /* Copy printable US ASCII as-is */
                    *p++ = (char) ch;
                }
                /* Escape backslashes */
                else {
                    *p++ = '\\';
                    *p++ = '\\';
                }
            }

            /* Map special whitespace to '\t', \n', '\r' */
            else if (ch == '\t') {
                *p++ = '\\';
                *p++ = 't';
            }
            else if (ch == '\n') {
                *p++ = '\\';
                *p++ = 'n';
            }
            else if (ch == '\r') {
                *p++ = '\\';
                *p++ = 'r';
            }

            /* Map non-printable US ASCII and 8-bit characters to '\xHH' */
            else {
                *p++ = '\\';
                *p++ = 'x';
                *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0x000F];
                *p++ = Py_hexdigits[ch & 0x000F];
            }
        }
        /* U+0000-U+00ff range: Map 16-bit characters to '\uHHHH' */
        else if (ch < 0x10000) {
            /* U+0100-U+ffff */
            *p++ = '\\';
            *p++ = 'u';
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0x000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0x000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0x000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[ch & 0x000F];
        }
        /* U+010000-U+10ffff range: Map 21-bit characters to '\U00HHHHHH' */
        else {

            /* Make sure that the first two digits are zero */
            assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE && MAX_UNICODE <= 0x10ffff);
            *p++ = '\\';
            *p++ = 'U';
            *p++ = '0';
            *p++ = '0';
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 20) & 0x0000000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 16) & 0x0000000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0x0000000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0x0000000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0x0000000F];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[ch & 0x0000000F];
        }
    }

    assert(p - PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr) > 0);
    if (_PyBytes_Resize(&repr, p - PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr)) < 0) {
        return NULL;
    }
    return repr;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                              Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *tmp = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (tmp == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }

    result = PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(tmp);
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return result;
}

/* --- Raw Unicode Escape Codec ------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *s,
                                 Py_ssize_t size,
                                 const char *errors)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const char *end;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;

    if (size == 0) {
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    /* Escaped strings will always be longer than the resulting
       Unicode string, so we start with size here and then reduce the
       length after conversion to the true value. (But decoding error
       handler might have to resize the string) */
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
     writer.min_length = size;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, size, 127) < 0) {
        goto onError;
    }

    end = s + size;
    while (s < end) {
        unsigned char c = (unsigned char) *s++;
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        int count;
        Py_ssize_t startinpos;
        Py_ssize_t endinpos;
        const char *message;

#define WRITE_CHAR(ch)                                                        \
            do {                                                              \
                if (ch <= writer.maxchar) {                                   \
                    assert(writer.pos < writer.size);                         \
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(writer.kind, writer.data, writer.pos++, ch); \
                }                                                             \
                else if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0) { \
                    goto onError;                                             \
                }                                                             \
            } while(0)

        /* Non-escape characters are interpreted as Unicode ordinals */
        if (c != '\\' || s >= end) {
            WRITE_CHAR(c);
            continue;
        }

        c = (unsigned char) *s++;
        if (c == 'u') {
            count = 4;
            message = "truncated \\uXXXX escape";
        }
        else if (c == 'U') {
            count = 8;
            message = "truncated \\UXXXXXXXX escape";
        }
        else {
            assert(writer.pos < writer.size);
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer.kind, writer.data, writer.pos++, '\\');
            WRITE_CHAR(c);
            continue;
        }
        startinpos = s - starts - 2;

        /* \uHHHH with 4 hex digits, \U00HHHHHH with 8 */
        for (ch = 0; count && s < end; ++s, --count) {
            c = (unsigned char)*s;
            ch <<= 4;
            if (c >= '0' && c <= '9') {
                ch += c - '0';
            }
            else if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'f') {
                ch += c - ('a' - 10);
            }
            else if (c >= 'A' && c <= 'F') {
                ch += c - ('A' - 10);
            }
            else {
                break;
            }
        }
        if (!count) {
            if (ch <= MAX_UNICODE) {
                WRITE_CHAR(ch);
                continue;
            }
            message = "\\Uxxxxxxxx out of range";
        }

        endinpos = s-starts;
        writer.min_length = end - s + writer.pos;
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                "rawunicodeescape", message,
                &starts, &end, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                &writer)) {
            goto onError;
        }
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) < 0) {
            goto onError;
        }

#undef WRITE_CHAR
    }
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;

}


PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
{
    PyObject *repr;
    char *p;
    Py_ssize_t expandsize, pos;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1) {
        return NULL;
    }
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(data, len);
    }

    /* 4 byte characters can take up 10 bytes, 2 byte characters can take up 6
       bytes, and 1 byte characters 4. */
    expandsize = kind * 2 + 2;

    if (len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / expandsize) {
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    }
    repr = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, expandsize * len);
    if (repr == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }
    if (len == 0) {
        return repr;
    }

    p = PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr);
    for (pos = 0; pos < len; pos++) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, pos);

        /* U+0000-U+00ff range: Copy 8-bit characters as-is */
        if (ch < 0x100) {
            *p++ = (char) ch;
        }
        /* U+0000-U+00ff range: Map 16-bit characters to '\uHHHH' */
        else if (ch < 0x10000) {
            *p++ = '\\';
            *p++ = 'u';
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[ch & 15];
        }
        /* U+010000-U+10ffff range: Map 32-bit characters to '\U00HHHHHH' */
        else {
            assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE && MAX_UNICODE <= 0x10ffff);
            *p++ = '\\';
            *p++ = 'U';
            *p++ = '0';
            *p++ = '0';
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 20) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 16) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0xf];
            *p++ = Py_hexdigits[ch & 15];
        }
    }

    assert(p > PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr));
    if (_PyBytes_Resize(&repr, p - PyBytes_AS_STRING(repr)) < 0) {
        return NULL;
    }
    return repr;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s,
                                 Py_ssize_t size)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *tmp = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, size);
    if (tmp == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(tmp);
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return result;
}

/* --- Unicode Internal Codec ------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeInternal(const char *s,
                                 Py_ssize_t size,
                                 const char *errors)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    const char *end;
    const char *reason;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;

    if (PyErr_WarnEx(PyExc_DeprecationWarning,
                     "unicode_internal codec has been deprecated",
                     1))
        return NULL;

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    if (size / Py_UNICODE_SIZE > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - 1) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        goto onError;
    }
    writer.min_length = (size + (Py_UNICODE_SIZE - 1)) / Py_UNICODE_SIZE;

    end = s + size;
    while (s < end) {
        Py_UNICODE uch;
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        if (end - s < Py_UNICODE_SIZE) {
            endinpos = end-starts;
            reason = "truncated input";
            goto error;
        }
        /* We copy the raw representation one byte at a time because the
           pointer may be unaligned (see test_codeccallbacks). */
        ((char *) &uch)[0] = s[0];
        ((char *) &uch)[1] = s[1];
#ifdef Py_UNICODE_WIDE
        ((char *) &uch)[2] = s[2];
        ((char *) &uch)[3] = s[3];
#endif
        ch = uch;
#ifdef Py_UNICODE_WIDE
        /* We have to sanity check the raw data, otherwise doom looms for
           some malformed UCS-4 data. */
        if (ch > 0x10ffff) {
            endinpos = s - starts + Py_UNICODE_SIZE;
            reason = "illegal code point (> 0x10FFFF)";
            goto error;
        }
#endif
        s += Py_UNICODE_SIZE;
#ifndef Py_UNICODE_WIDE
        if (Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch) && end - s >= Py_UNICODE_SIZE)
        {
            Py_UNICODE uch2;
            ((char *) &uch2)[0] = s[0];
            ((char *) &uch2)[1] = s[1];
            if (Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(uch2))
            {
                ch = Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(uch, uch2);
                s += Py_UNICODE_SIZE;
            }
        }
#endif

        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(&writer, ch) < 0)
            goto onError;
        continue;

  error:
        startinpos = s - starts;
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                "unicode_internal", reason,
                &starts, &end, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                &writer))
            goto onError;
    }

    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

/* --- Latin-1 Codec ------------------------------------------------------ */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(const char *s,
                       Py_ssize_t size,
                       const char *errors)
{
    /* Latin-1 is equivalent to the first 256 ordinals in Unicode. */
    return _PyUnicode_FromUCS1((unsigned char*)s, size);
}

/* create or adjust a UnicodeEncodeError */
static void
make_encode_exception(PyObject **exceptionObject,
                      const char *encoding,
                      PyObject *unicode,
                      Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                      const char *reason)
{
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL) {
        *exceptionObject = PyObject_CallFunction(
            PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError, "sOnns",
            encoding, unicode, startpos, endpos, reason);
    }
    else {
        if (PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(*exceptionObject, startpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(*exceptionObject, endpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(*exceptionObject, reason))
            goto onError;
        return;
      onError:
        Py_CLEAR(*exceptionObject);
    }
}

/* raises a UnicodeEncodeError */
static void
raise_encode_exception(PyObject **exceptionObject,
                       const char *encoding,
                       PyObject *unicode,
                       Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                       const char *reason)
{
    make_encode_exception(exceptionObject,
                          encoding, unicode, startpos, endpos, reason);
    if (*exceptionObject != NULL)
        PyCodec_StrictErrors(*exceptionObject);
}

/* error handling callback helper:
   build arguments, call the callback and check the arguments,
   put the result into newpos and return the replacement string, which
   has to be freed by the caller */
static PyObject *
unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(const char *errors,
                                 PyObject **errorHandler,
                                 const char *encoding, const char *reason,
                                 PyObject *unicode, PyObject **exceptionObject,
                                 Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                                 Py_ssize_t *newpos)
{
    static const char *argparse = "On;encoding error handler must return (str/bytes, int) tuple";
    Py_ssize_t len;
    PyObject *restuple;
    PyObject *resunicode;

    if (*errorHandler == NULL) {
        *errorHandler = PyCodec_LookupError(errors);
        if (*errorHandler == NULL)
            return NULL;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);

    make_encode_exception(exceptionObject,
                          encoding, unicode, startpos, endpos, reason);
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL)
        return NULL;

    restuple = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(
        *errorHandler, *exceptionObject, NULL);
    if (restuple == NULL)
        return NULL;
    if (!PyTuple_Check(restuple)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, &argparse[3]);
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(restuple, argparse,
                          &resunicode, newpos)) {
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(resunicode) && !PyBytes_Check(resunicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, &argparse[3]);
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (*newpos<0)
        *newpos = len + *newpos;
    if (*newpos<0 || *newpos>len) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_IndexError, "position %zd from error handler out of bounds", *newpos);
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    Py_INCREF(resunicode);
    Py_DECREF(restuple);
    return resunicode;
}

static PyObject *
unicode_encode_ucs1(PyObject *unicode,
                    const char *errors,
                    const Py_UCS4 limit)
{
    /* input state */
    Py_ssize_t pos=0, size;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    /* pointer into the output */
    char *str;
    const char *encoding = (limit == 256) ? "latin-1" : "ascii";
    const char *reason = (limit == 256) ? "ordinal not in range(256)" : "ordinal not in range(128)";
    PyObject *error_handler_obj = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    _Py_error_handler error_handler = _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN;
    PyObject *rep = NULL;
    /* output object */
    _PyBytesWriter writer;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    /* allocate enough for a simple encoding without
       replacements, if we need more, we'll resize */
    if (size == 0)
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, 0);

    _PyBytesWriter_Init(&writer);
    str = _PyBytesWriter_Alloc(&writer, size);
    if (str == NULL)
        return NULL;

    while (pos < size) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, pos);

        /* can we encode this? */
        if (ch < limit) {
            /* no overflow check, because we know that the space is enough */
            *str++ = (char)ch;
            ++pos;
        }
        else {
            Py_ssize_t newpos, i;
            /* startpos for collecting unencodable chars */
            Py_ssize_t collstart = pos;
            Py_ssize_t collend = collstart + 1;
            /* find all unecodable characters */

            while ((collend < size) && (PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, collend) >= limit))
                ++collend;

            /* Only overallocate the buffer if it's not the last write */
            writer.overallocate = (collend < size);

            /* cache callback name lookup (if not done yet, i.e. it's the first error) */
            if (error_handler == _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN)
                error_handler = get_error_handler(errors);

            switch (error_handler) {
            case _Py_ERROR_STRICT:
                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding, unicode, collstart, collend, reason);
                goto onError;

            case _Py_ERROR_REPLACE:
                memset(str, '?', collend - collstart);
                str += (collend - collstart);
                /* fall through ignore error handler */
            case _Py_ERROR_IGNORE:
                pos = collend;
                break;

            case _Py_ERROR_BACKSLASHREPLACE:
                /* subtract preallocated bytes */
                writer.min_size -= (collend - collstart);
                str = backslashreplace(&writer, str,
                                       unicode, collstart, collend);
                if (str == NULL)
                    goto onError;
                pos = collend;
                break;

            case _Py_ERROR_XMLCHARREFREPLACE:
                /* subtract preallocated bytes */
                writer.min_size -= (collend - collstart);
                str = xmlcharrefreplace(&writer, str,
                                        unicode, collstart, collend);
                if (str == NULL)
                    goto onError;
                pos = collend;
                break;

            case _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE:
                for (i = collstart; i < collend; ++i) {
                    ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
                    if (ch < 0xdc80 || 0xdcff < ch) {
                        /* Not a UTF-8b surrogate */
                        break;
                    }
                    *str++ = (char)(ch - 0xdc00);
                    ++pos;
                }
                if (i >= collend)
                    break;
                collstart = pos;
                assert(collstart != collend);
                /* fallback to general error handling */

            default:
                rep = unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(errors, &error_handler_obj,
                                                       encoding, reason, unicode, &exc,
                                                       collstart, collend, &newpos);
                if (rep == NULL)
                    goto onError;

                /* subtract preallocated bytes */
                writer.min_size -= 1;

                if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
                    /* Directly copy bytes result to output. */
                    str = _PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes(&writer, str,
                                                    PyBytes_AS_STRING(rep),
                                                    PyBytes_GET_SIZE(rep));
                    if (str == NULL)
                        goto onError;
                }
                else {
                    assert(PyUnicode_Check(rep));

                    if (PyUnicode_READY(rep) < 0)
                        goto onError;

                    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(rep)) {
                        /* Fast path: all characters are smaller than limit */
                        assert(limit >= 128);
                        assert(PyUnicode_KIND(rep) == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
                        str = _PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes(&writer, str,
                                                        PyUnicode_DATA(rep),
                                                        PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(rep));
                    }
                    else {
                        Py_ssize_t repsize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(rep);

                        str = _PyBytesWriter_Prepare(&writer, str, repsize);
                        if (str == NULL)
                            goto onError;

                        /* check if there is anything unencodable in the
                           replacement and copy it to the output */
                        for (i = 0; repsize-->0; ++i, ++str) {
                            ch = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(rep, i);
                            if (ch >= limit) {
                                raise_encode_exception(&exc, encoding, unicode,
                                                       pos, pos+1, reason);
                                goto onError;
                            }
                            *str = (char)ch;
                        }
                    }
                }
                pos = newpos;
                Py_CLEAR(rep);
            }

            /* If overallocation was disabled, ensure that it was the last
               write. Otherwise, we missed an optimization */
            assert(writer.overallocate || pos == size);
        }
    }

    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyBytesWriter_Finish(&writer, str);

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(rep);
    _PyBytesWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

/* Deprecated */
PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(const Py_UNICODE *p,
                       Py_ssize_t size,
                       const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(p, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = unicode_encode_ucs1(unicode, errors, 256);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    /* Fast path: if it is a one-byte string, construct
       bytes object directly. */
    if (PyUnicode_KIND(unicode) == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND)
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
                                         PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
    /* Non-Latin-1 characters present. Defer to above function to
       raise the exception. */
    return unicode_encode_ucs1(unicode, errors, 256);
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return _PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(unicode, NULL);
}

/* --- 7-bit ASCII Codec -------------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(const char *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos;
    Py_ssize_t endinpos;
    Py_ssize_t outpos;
    const char *e;
    PyObject *error_handler_obj = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    _Py_error_handler error_handler = _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN;

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();

    /* ASCII is equivalent to the first 128 ordinals in Unicode. */
    if (size == 1 && (unsigned char)s[0] < 128)
        return get_latin1_char((unsigned char)s[0]);

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = size;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) < 0)
        return NULL;

    e = s + size;
    data = writer.data;
    outpos = ascii_decode(s, e, (Py_UCS1 *)data);
    writer.pos = outpos;
    if (writer.pos == size)
        return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

    s += writer.pos;
    kind = writer.kind;
    while (s < e) {
        unsigned char c = (unsigned char)*s;
        if (c < 128) {
            PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, writer.pos, c);
            writer.pos++;
            ++s;
            continue;
        }

        /* byte outsize range 0x00..0x7f: call the error handler */

        if (error_handler == _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN)
            error_handler = get_error_handler(errors);

        switch (error_handler)
        {
        case _Py_ERROR_REPLACE:
        case _Py_ERROR_SURROGATEESCAPE:
            /* Fast-path: the error handler only writes one character,
               but we may switch to UCS2 at the first write */
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(&writer, PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) < 0)
                goto onError;
            kind = writer.kind;
            data = writer.data;

            if (error_handler == _Py_ERROR_REPLACE)
                PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, writer.pos, 0xfffd);
            else
                PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, writer.pos, c + 0xdc00);
            writer.pos++;
            ++s;
            break;

        case _Py_ERROR_IGNORE:
            ++s;
            break;

        default:
            startinpos = s-starts;
            endinpos = startinpos + 1;
            if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                    errors, &error_handler_obj,
                    "ascii", "ordinal not in range(128)",
                    &starts, &e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                    &writer))
                goto onError;
            kind = writer.kind;
            data = writer.data;
        }
    }
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return NULL;
}

/* Deprecated */
PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(const Py_UNICODE *p,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(p, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = unicode_encode_ucs1(unicode, errors, 128);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    /* Fast path: if it is an ASCII-only string, construct bytes object
       directly. Else defer to above function to raise the exception. */
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
                                         PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
    return unicode_encode_ucs1(unicode, errors, 128);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return _PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(unicode, NULL);
}

#ifdef MS_WINDOWS

/* --- MBCS codecs for Windows -------------------------------------------- */

#if SIZEOF_INT < SIZEOF_SIZE_T
#define NEED_RETRY
#endif

#ifndef WC_ERR_INVALID_CHARS
#  define WC_ERR_INVALID_CHARS 0x0080
#endif

static const char*
code_page_name(UINT code_page, PyObject **obj)
{
    *obj = NULL;
    if (code_page == CP_ACP)
        return "mbcs";
    if (code_page == CP_UTF7)
        return "CP_UTF7";
    if (code_page == CP_UTF8)
        return "CP_UTF8";

    *obj = PyBytes_FromFormat("cp%u", code_page);
    if (*obj == NULL)
        return NULL;
    return PyBytes_AS_STRING(*obj);
}

static DWORD
decode_code_page_flags(UINT code_page)
{
    if (code_page == CP_UTF7) {
        /* The CP_UTF7 decoder only supports flags=0 */
        return 0;
    }
    else
        return MB_ERR_INVALID_CHARS;
}

/*
 * Decode a byte string from a Windows code page into unicode object in strict
 * mode.
 *
 * Returns consumed size if succeed, returns -2 on decode error, or raise an
 * OSError and returns -1 on other error.
 */
static int
decode_code_page_strict(UINT code_page,
                        PyObject **v,
                        const char *in,
                        int insize)
{
    const DWORD flags = decode_code_page_flags(code_page);
    wchar_t *out;
    DWORD outsize;

    /* First get the size of the result */
    assert(insize > 0);
    outsize = MultiByteToWideChar(code_page, flags, in, insize, NULL, 0);
    if (outsize <= 0)
        goto error;

    if (*v == NULL) {
        /* Create unicode object */
        /* FIXME: don't use _PyUnicode_New(), but allocate a wchar_t* buffer */
        *v = (PyObject*)_PyUnicode_New(outsize);
        if (*v == NULL)
            return -1;
        out = PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v);
    }
    else {
        /* Extend unicode object */
        Py_ssize_t n = PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(*v);
        if (unicode_resize(v, n + outsize) < 0)
            return -1;
        out = PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v) + n;
    }

    /* Do the conversion */
    outsize = MultiByteToWideChar(code_page, flags, in, insize, out, outsize);
    if (outsize <= 0)
        goto error;
    return insize;

error:
    if (GetLastError() == ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION)
        return -2;
    PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(0);
    return -1;
}

/*
 * Decode a byte string from a code page into unicode object with an error
 * handler.
 *
 * Returns consumed size if succeed, or raise an OSError or
 * UnicodeDecodeError exception and returns -1 on error.
 */
static int
decode_code_page_errors(UINT code_page,
                        PyObject **v,
                        const char *in, const int size,
                        const char *errors, int final)
{
    const char *startin = in;
    const char *endin = in + size;
    const DWORD flags = decode_code_page_flags(code_page);
    /* Ideally, we should get reason from FormatMessage. This is the Windows
       2000 English version of the message. */
    const char *reason = "No mapping for the Unicode character exists "
                         "in the target code page.";
    /* each step cannot decode more than 1 character, but a character can be
       represented as a surrogate pair */
    wchar_t buffer[2], *startout, *out;
    int insize;
    Py_ssize_t outsize;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    PyObject *encoding_obj = NULL;
    const char *encoding;
    DWORD err;
    int ret = -1;

    assert(size > 0);

    encoding = code_page_name(code_page, &encoding_obj);
    if (encoding == NULL)
        return -1;

    if ((errors == NULL || strcmp(errors, "strict") == 0) && final) {
        /* The last error was ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION, then we raise a
           UnicodeDecodeError. */
        make_decode_exception(&exc, encoding, in, size, 0, 0, reason);
        if (exc != NULL) {
            PyCodec_StrictErrors(exc);
            Py_CLEAR(exc);
        }
        goto error;
    }

    if (*v == NULL) {
        /* Create unicode object */
        if (size > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (Py_ssize_t)Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            goto error;
        }
        /* FIXME: don't use _PyUnicode_New(), but allocate a wchar_t* buffer */
        *v = (PyObject*)_PyUnicode_New(size * Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer));
        if (*v == NULL)
            goto error;
        startout = PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v);
    }
    else {
        /* Extend unicode object */
        Py_ssize_t n = PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(*v);
        if (size > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - n) / (Py_ssize_t)Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer)) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            goto error;
        }
        if (unicode_resize(v, n + size * Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer)) < 0)
            goto error;
        startout = PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v) + n;
    }

    /* Decode the byte string character per character */
    out = startout;
    while (in < endin)
    {
        /* Decode a character */
        insize = 1;
        do
        {
            outsize = MultiByteToWideChar(code_page, flags,
                                          in, insize,
                                          buffer, Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer));
            if (outsize > 0)
                break;
            err = GetLastError();
            if (err != ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION
                && err != ERROR_INSUFFICIENT_BUFFER)
            {
                PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(0);
                goto error;
            }
            insize++;
        }
        /* 4=maximum length of a UTF-8 sequence */
        while (insize <= 4 && (in + insize) <= endin);

        if (outsize <= 0) {
            Py_ssize_t startinpos, endinpos, outpos;

            /* last character in partial decode? */
            if (in + insize >= endin && !final)
                break;

            startinpos = in - startin;
            endinpos = startinpos + 1;
            outpos = out - PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v);
            if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_wchar(
                    errors, &errorHandler,
                    encoding, reason,
                    &startin, &endin, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &in,
                    v, &outpos))
            {
                goto error;
            }
            out = PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(*v) + outpos;
        }
        else {
            in += insize;
            memcpy(out, buffer, outsize * sizeof(wchar_t));
            out += outsize;
        }
    }

    /* write a NUL character at the end */
    *out = 0;

    /* Extend unicode object */
    outsize = out - startout;
    assert(outsize <= PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(*v));
    if (unicode_resize(v, outsize) < 0)
        goto error;
    /* (in - startin) <= size and size is an int */
    ret = Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(in - startin, Py_ssize_t, int);

error:
    Py_XDECREF(encoding_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return ret;
}

static PyObject *
decode_code_page_stateful(int code_page,
                          const char *s, Py_ssize_t size,
                          const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    PyObject *v = NULL;
    int chunk_size, final, converted, done;

    if (code_page < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "invalid code page number");
        return NULL;
    }

    if (consumed)
        *consumed = 0;

    do
    {
#ifdef NEED_RETRY
        if (size > INT_MAX) {
            chunk_size = INT_MAX;
            final = 0;
            done = 0;
        }
        else
#endif
        {
            chunk_size = (int)size;
            final = (consumed == NULL);
            done = 1;
        }

        if (chunk_size == 0 && done) {
            if (v != NULL)
                break;
            _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        }

        converted = decode_code_page_strict(code_page, &v,
                                            s, chunk_size);
        if (converted == -2)
            converted = decode_code_page_errors(code_page, &v,
                                                s, chunk_size,
                                                errors, final);
        assert(converted != 0 || done);

        if (converted < 0) {
            Py_XDECREF(v);
            return NULL;
        }

        if (consumed)
            *consumed += converted;

        s += converted;
        size -= converted;
    } while (!done);

    return unicode_result(v);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(int code_page,
                                 const char *s,
                                 Py_ssize_t size,
                                 const char *errors,
                                 Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    return decode_code_page_stateful(code_page, s, size, errors, consumed);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *s,
                             Py_ssize_t size,
                             const char *errors,
                             Py_ssize_t *consumed)
{
    return decode_code_page_stateful(CP_ACP, s, size, errors, consumed);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(const char *s,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     const char *errors)
{
    return PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(s, size, errors, NULL);
}

static DWORD
encode_code_page_flags(UINT code_page, const char *errors)
{
    if (code_page == CP_UTF8) {
        return WC_ERR_INVALID_CHARS;
    }
    else if (code_page == CP_UTF7) {
        /* CP_UTF7 only supports flags=0 */
        return 0;
    }
    else {
        if (errors != NULL && strcmp(errors, "replace") == 0)
            return 0;
        else
            return WC_NO_BEST_FIT_CHARS;
    }
}

/*
 * Encode a Unicode string to a Windows code page into a byte string in strict
 * mode.
 *
 * Returns consumed characters if succeed, returns -2 on encode error, or raise
 * an OSError and returns -1 on other error.
 */
static int
encode_code_page_strict(UINT code_page, PyObject **outbytes,
                        PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t offset, int len,
                        const char* errors)
{
    BOOL usedDefaultChar = FALSE;
    BOOL *pusedDefaultChar = &usedDefaultChar;
    int outsize;
    wchar_t *p;
    Py_ssize_t size;
    const DWORD flags = encode_code_page_flags(code_page, NULL);
    char *out;
    /* Create a substring so that we can get the UTF-16 representation
       of just the slice under consideration. */
    PyObject *substring;

    assert(len > 0);

    if (code_page != CP_UTF8 && code_page != CP_UTF7)
        pusedDefaultChar = &usedDefaultChar;
    else
        pusedDefaultChar = NULL;

    substring = PyUnicode_Substring(unicode, offset, offset+len);
    if (substring == NULL)
        return -1;
    p = PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(substring, &size);
    if (p == NULL) {
        Py_DECREF(substring);
        return -1;
    }
    assert(size <= INT_MAX);

    /* First get the size of the result */
    outsize = WideCharToMultiByte(code_page, flags,
                                  p, (int)size,
                                  NULL, 0,
                                  NULL, pusedDefaultChar);
    if (outsize <= 0)
        goto error;
    /* If we used a default char, then we failed! */
    if (pusedDefaultChar && *pusedDefaultChar) {
        Py_DECREF(substring);
        return -2;
    }

    if (*outbytes == NULL) {
        /* Create string object */
        *outbytes = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, outsize);
        if (*outbytes == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(substring);
            return -1;
        }
        out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes);
    }
    else {
        /* Extend string object */
        const Py_ssize_t n = PyBytes_Size(*outbytes);
        if (outsize > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - n) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            Py_DECREF(substring);
            return -1;
        }
        if (_PyBytes_Resize(outbytes, n + outsize) < 0) {
            Py_DECREF(substring);
            return -1;
        }
        out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes) + n;
    }

    /* Do the conversion */
    outsize = WideCharToMultiByte(code_page, flags,
                                  p, (int)size,
                                  out, outsize,
                                  NULL, pusedDefaultChar);
    Py_CLEAR(substring);
    if (outsize <= 0)
        goto error;
    if (pusedDefaultChar && *pusedDefaultChar)
        return -2;
    return 0;

error:
    Py_XDECREF(substring);
    if (GetLastError() == ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION)
        return -2;
    PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(0);
    return -1;
}

/*
 * Encode a Unicode string to a Windows code page into a byte string using an
 * error handler.
 *
 * Returns consumed characters if succeed, or raise an OSError and returns
 * -1 on other error.
 */
static int
encode_code_page_errors(UINT code_page, PyObject **outbytes,
                        PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t unicode_offset,
                        Py_ssize_t insize, const char* errors)
{
    const DWORD flags = encode_code_page_flags(code_page, errors);
    Py_ssize_t pos = unicode_offset;
    Py_ssize_t endin = unicode_offset + insize;
    /* Ideally, we should get reason from FormatMessage. This is the Windows
       2000 English version of the message. */
    const char *reason = "invalid character";
    /* 4=maximum length of a UTF-8 sequence */
    char buffer[4];
    BOOL usedDefaultChar = FALSE, *pusedDefaultChar;
    Py_ssize_t outsize;
    char *out;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    PyObject *encoding_obj = NULL;
    const char *encoding;
    Py_ssize_t newpos, newoutsize;
    PyObject *rep;
    int ret = -1;

    assert(insize > 0);

    encoding = code_page_name(code_page, &encoding_obj);
    if (encoding == NULL)
        return -1;

    if (errors == NULL || strcmp(errors, "strict") == 0) {
        /* The last error was ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION,
           then we raise a UnicodeEncodeError. */
        make_encode_exception(&exc, encoding, unicode, 0, 0, reason);
        if (exc != NULL) {
            PyCodec_StrictErrors(exc);
            Py_DECREF(exc);
        }
        Py_XDECREF(encoding_obj);
        return -1;
    }

    if (code_page != CP_UTF8 && code_page != CP_UTF7)
        pusedDefaultChar = &usedDefaultChar;
    else
        pusedDefaultChar = NULL;

    if (Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer) > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / insize) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        goto error;
    }
    outsize = insize * Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer);

    if (*outbytes == NULL) {
        /* Create string object */
        *outbytes = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, outsize);
        if (*outbytes == NULL)
            goto error;
        out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes);
    }
    else {
        /* Extend string object */
        Py_ssize_t n = PyBytes_Size(*outbytes);
        if (n > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - outsize) {
            PyErr_NoMemory();
            goto error;
        }
        if (_PyBytes_Resize(outbytes, n + outsize) < 0)
            goto error;
        out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes) + n;
    }

    /* Encode the string character per character */
    while (pos < endin)
    {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(unicode, pos);
        wchar_t chars[2];
        int charsize;
        if (ch < 0x10000) {
            chars[0] = (wchar_t)ch;
            charsize = 1;
        }
        else {
            chars[0] = Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch);
            chars[1] = Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(ch);
            charsize = 2;
        }

        outsize = WideCharToMultiByte(code_page, flags,
                                      chars, charsize,
                                      buffer, Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(buffer),
                                      NULL, pusedDefaultChar);
        if (outsize > 0) {
            if (pusedDefaultChar == NULL || !(*pusedDefaultChar))
            {
                pos++;
                memcpy(out, buffer, outsize);
                out += outsize;
                continue;
            }
        }
        else if (GetLastError() != ERROR_NO_UNICODE_TRANSLATION) {
            PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(0);
            goto error;
        }

        rep = unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(
                  errors, &errorHandler, encoding, reason,
                  unicode, &exc,
                  pos, pos + 1, &newpos);
        if (rep == NULL)
            goto error;
        pos = newpos;

        if (PyBytes_Check(rep)) {
            outsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(rep);
            if (outsize != 1) {
                Py_ssize_t offset = out - PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes);
                newoutsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(*outbytes) + (outsize - 1);
                if (_PyBytes_Resize(outbytes, newoutsize) < 0) {
                    Py_DECREF(rep);
                    goto error;
                }
                out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes) + offset;
            }
            memcpy(out, PyBytes_AS_STRING(rep), outsize);
            out += outsize;
        }
        else {
            Py_ssize_t i;
            enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
            void *data;

            if (PyUnicode_READY(rep) == -1) {
                Py_DECREF(rep);
                goto error;
            }

            outsize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(rep);
            if (outsize != 1) {
                Py_ssize_t offset = out - PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes);
                newoutsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(*outbytes) + (outsize - 1);
                if (_PyBytes_Resize(outbytes, newoutsize) < 0) {
                    Py_DECREF(rep);
                    goto error;
                }
                out = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes) + offset;
            }
            kind = PyUnicode_KIND(rep);
            data = PyUnicode_DATA(rep);
            for (i=0; i < outsize; i++) {
                Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
                if (ch > 127) {
                    raise_encode_exception(&exc,
                        encoding, unicode,
                        pos, pos + 1,
                        "unable to encode error handler result to ASCII");
                    Py_DECREF(rep);
                    goto error;
                }
                *out = (unsigned char)ch;
                out++;
            }
        }
        Py_DECREF(rep);
    }
    /* write a NUL byte */
    *out = 0;
    outsize = out - PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outbytes);
    assert(outsize <= PyBytes_GET_SIZE(*outbytes));
    if (_PyBytes_Resize(outbytes, outsize) < 0)
        goto error;
    ret = 0;

error:
    Py_XDECREF(encoding_obj);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return ret;
}

static PyObject *
encode_code_page(int code_page,
                 PyObject *unicode,
                 const char *errors)
{
    Py_ssize_t len;
    PyObject *outbytes = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t offset;
    int chunk_len, ret, done;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);

    if (code_page < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "invalid code page number");
        return NULL;
    }

    if (len == 0)
        return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, 0);

    offset = 0;
    do
    {
#ifdef NEED_RETRY
        /* UTF-16 encoding may double the size, so use only INT_MAX/2
           chunks. */
        if (len > INT_MAX/2) {
            chunk_len = INT_MAX/2;
            done = 0;
        }
        else
#endif
        {
            chunk_len = (int)len;
            done = 1;
        }

        ret = encode_code_page_strict(code_page, &outbytes,
                                      unicode, offset, chunk_len,
                                      errors);
        if (ret == -2)
            ret = encode_code_page_errors(code_page, &outbytes,
                                          unicode, offset,
                                          chunk_len, errors);
        if (ret < 0) {
            Py_XDECREF(outbytes);
            return NULL;
        }

        offset += chunk_len;
        len -= chunk_len;
    } while (!done);

    return outbytes;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(const Py_UNICODE *p,
                     Py_ssize_t size,
                     const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *unicode, *res;
    unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(p, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    res = encode_code_page(CP_ACP, unicode, errors);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return res;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(int code_page,
                         PyObject *unicode,
                         const char *errors)
{
    return encode_code_page(code_page, unicode, errors);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode)
{
    return PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(CP_ACP, unicode, NULL);
}

#undef NEED_RETRY

#endif /* MS_WINDOWS */

/* --- Character Mapping Codec -------------------------------------------- */

static int
charmap_decode_string(const char *s,
                      Py_ssize_t size,
                      PyObject *mapping,
                      const char *errors,
                      _PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    const char *e;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos, endinpos;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL, *exc = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t maplen;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind mapkind;
    void *mapdata;
    Py_UCS4 x;
    unsigned char ch;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(mapping) == -1)
        return -1;

    maplen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(mapping);
    mapdata = PyUnicode_DATA(mapping);
    mapkind = PyUnicode_KIND(mapping);

    e = s + size;

    if (mapkind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND && maplen >= 256) {
        /* fast-path for cp037, cp500 and iso8859_1 encodings. iso8859_1
         * is disabled in encoding aliases, latin1 is preferred because
         * its implementation is faster. */
        Py_UCS1 *mapdata_ucs1 = (Py_UCS1 *)mapdata;
        Py_UCS1 *outdata = (Py_UCS1 *)writer->data;
        Py_UCS4 maxchar = writer->maxchar;

        assert (writer->kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
        while (s < e) {
            ch = *s;
            x = mapdata_ucs1[ch];
            if (x > maxchar) {
                if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, 1, 0xff) == -1)
                    goto onError;
                maxchar = writer->maxchar;
                outdata = (Py_UCS1 *)writer->data;
            }
            outdata[writer->pos] = x;
            writer->pos++;
            ++s;
        }
        return 0;
    }

    while (s < e) {
        if (mapkind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND && maplen >= 256) {
            enum PyUnicode_Kind outkind = writer->kind;
            Py_UCS2 *mapdata_ucs2 = (Py_UCS2 *)mapdata;
            if (outkind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
                Py_UCS1 *outdata = (Py_UCS1 *)writer->data;
                Py_UCS4 maxchar = writer->maxchar;
                while (s < e) {
                    ch = *s;
                    x = mapdata_ucs2[ch];
                    if (x > maxchar)
                        goto Error;
                    outdata[writer->pos] = x;
                    writer->pos++;
                    ++s;
                }
                break;
            }
            else if (outkind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
                Py_UCS2 *outdata = (Py_UCS2 *)writer->data;
                while (s < e) {
                    ch = *s;
                    x = mapdata_ucs2[ch];
                    if (x == 0xFFFE)
                        goto Error;
                    outdata[writer->pos] = x;
                    writer->pos++;
                    ++s;
                }
                break;
            }
        }
        ch = *s;

        if (ch < maplen)
            x = PyUnicode_READ(mapkind, mapdata, ch);
        else
            x = 0xfffe; /* invalid value */
Error:
        if (x == 0xfffe)
        {
            /* undefined mapping */
            startinpos = s-starts;
            endinpos = startinpos+1;
            if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                    errors, &errorHandler,
                    "charmap", "character maps to <undefined>",
                    &starts, &e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                    writer)) {
                goto onError;
            }
            continue;
        }

        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, x) < 0)
            goto onError;
        ++s;
    }
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return 0;

onError:
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return -1;
}

static int
charmap_decode_mapping(const char *s,
                       Py_ssize_t size,
                       PyObject *mapping,
                       const char *errors,
                       _PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    const char *starts = s;
    const char *e;
    Py_ssize_t startinpos, endinpos;
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL, *exc = NULL;
    unsigned char ch;
    PyObject *key, *item = NULL;

    e = s + size;

    while (s < e) {
        ch = *s;

        /* Get mapping (char ordinal -> integer, Unicode char or None) */
        key = PyLong_FromLong((long)ch);
        if (key == NULL)
            goto onError;

        item = PyObject_GetItem(mapping, key);
        Py_DECREF(key);
        if (item == NULL) {
            if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_LookupError)) {
                /* No mapping found means: mapping is undefined. */
                PyErr_Clear();
                goto Undefined;
            } else
                goto onError;
        }

        /* Apply mapping */
        if (item == Py_None)
            goto Undefined;
        if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
            long value = PyLong_AS_LONG(item);
            if (value == 0xFFFE)
                goto Undefined;
            if (value < 0 || value > MAX_UNICODE) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "character mapping must be in range(0x%lx)",
                             (unsigned long)MAX_UNICODE + 1);
                goto onError;
            }

            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, value) < 0)
                goto onError;
        }
        else if (PyUnicode_Check(item)) {
            if (PyUnicode_READY(item) == -1)
                goto onError;
            if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(item) == 1) {
                Py_UCS4 value = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(item, 0);
                if (value == 0xFFFE)
                    goto Undefined;
                if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, value) < 0)
                    goto onError;
            }
            else {
                writer->overallocate = 1;
                if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, item) == -1)
                    goto onError;
            }
        }
        else {
            /* wrong return value */
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                            "character mapping must return integer, None or str");
            goto onError;
        }
        Py_CLEAR(item);
        ++s;
        continue;

Undefined:
        /* undefined mapping */
        Py_CLEAR(item);
        startinpos = s-starts;
        endinpos = startinpos+1;
        if (unicode_decode_call_errorhandler_writer(
                errors, &errorHandler,
                "charmap", "character maps to <undefined>",
                &starts, &e, &startinpos, &endinpos, &exc, &s,
                writer)) {
            goto onError;
        }
    }
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return 0;

onError:
    Py_XDECREF(item);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    return -1;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *s,
                        Py_ssize_t size,
                        PyObject *mapping,
                        const char *errors)
{
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;

    /* Default to Latin-1 */
    if (mapping == NULL)
        return PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(s, size, errors);

    if (size == 0)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    writer.min_length = size;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, writer.min_length, 127) == -1)
        goto onError;

    if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(mapping)) {
        if (charmap_decode_string(s, size, mapping, errors, &writer) < 0)
            goto onError;
    }
    else {
        if (charmap_decode_mapping(s, size, mapping, errors, &writer) < 0)
            goto onError;
    }
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    return NULL;
}

/* Charmap encoding: the lookup table */

struct encoding_map {
    PyObject_HEAD
    unsigned char level1[32];
    int count2, count3;
    unsigned char level23[1];
};

static PyObject*
encoding_map_size(PyObject *obj, PyObject* args)
{
    struct encoding_map *map = (struct encoding_map*)obj;
    return PyLong_FromLong(sizeof(*map) - 1 + 16*map->count2 +
                           128*map->count3);
}

static PyMethodDef encoding_map_methods[] = {
    {"size", encoding_map_size, METH_NOARGS,
     PyDoc_STR("Return the size (in bytes) of this object") },
    { 0 }
};

static void
encoding_map_dealloc(PyObject* o)
{
    PyObject_FREE(o);
}

static PyTypeObject EncodingMapType = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    "EncodingMap",          /*tp_name*/
    sizeof(struct encoding_map),   /*tp_basicsize*/
    0,                      /*tp_itemsize*/
    /* methods */
    encoding_map_dealloc,   /*tp_dealloc*/
    0,                      /*tp_print*/
    0,                      /*tp_getattr*/
    0,                      /*tp_setattr*/
    0,                      /*tp_reserved*/
    0,                      /*tp_repr*/
    0,                      /*tp_as_number*/
    0,                      /*tp_as_sequence*/
    0,                      /*tp_as_mapping*/
    0,                      /*tp_hash*/
    0,                      /*tp_call*/
    0,                      /*tp_str*/
    0,                      /*tp_getattro*/
    0,                      /*tp_setattro*/
    0,                      /*tp_as_buffer*/
    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,     /*tp_flags*/
    0,                      /*tp_doc*/
    0,                      /*tp_traverse*/
    0,                      /*tp_clear*/
    0,                      /*tp_richcompare*/
    0,                      /*tp_weaklistoffset*/
    0,                      /*tp_iter*/
    0,                      /*tp_iternext*/
    encoding_map_methods,   /*tp_methods*/
    0,                      /*tp_members*/
    0,                      /*tp_getset*/
    0,                      /*tp_base*/
    0,                      /*tp_dict*/
    0,                      /*tp_descr_get*/
    0,                      /*tp_descr_set*/
    0,                      /*tp_dictoffset*/
    0,                      /*tp_init*/
    0,                      /*tp_alloc*/
    0,                      /*tp_new*/
    0,                      /*tp_free*/
    0,                      /*tp_is_gc*/
};

PyObject*
PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(PyObject* string)
{
    PyObject *result;
    struct encoding_map *mresult;
    int i;
    int need_dict = 0;
    unsigned char level1[32];
    unsigned char level2[512];
    unsigned char *mlevel1, *mlevel2, *mlevel3;
    int count2 = 0, count3 = 0;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t length;
    Py_UCS4 ch;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(string) || !PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(string);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(string);
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string);
    length = Py_MIN(length, 256);
    memset(level1, 0xFF, sizeof level1);
    memset(level2, 0xFF, sizeof level2);

    /* If there isn't a one-to-one mapping of NULL to \0,
       or if there are non-BMP characters, we need to use
       a mapping dictionary. */
    if (PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0) != 0)
        need_dict = 1;
    for (i = 1; i < length; i++) {
        int l1, l2;
        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (ch == 0 || ch > 0xFFFF) {
            need_dict = 1;
            break;
        }
        if (ch == 0xFFFE)
            /* unmapped character */
            continue;
        l1 = ch >> 11;
        l2 = ch >> 7;
        if (level1[l1] == 0xFF)
            level1[l1] = count2++;
        if (level2[l2] == 0xFF)
            level2[l2] = count3++;
    }

    if (count2 >= 0xFF || count3 >= 0xFF)
        need_dict = 1;

    if (need_dict) {
        PyObject *result = PyDict_New();
        PyObject *key, *value;
        if (!result)
            return NULL;
        for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
            key = PyLong_FromLong(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i));
            value = PyLong_FromLong(i);
            if (!key || !value)
                goto failed1;
            if (PyDict_SetItem(result, key, value) == -1)
                goto failed1;
            Py_DECREF(key);
            Py_DECREF(value);
        }
        return result;
      failed1:
        Py_XDECREF(key);
        Py_XDECREF(value);
        Py_DECREF(result);
        return NULL;
    }

    /* Create a three-level trie */
    result = PyObject_MALLOC(sizeof(struct encoding_map) +
                             16*count2 + 128*count3 - 1);
    if (!result)
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    PyObject_Init(result, &EncodingMapType);
    mresult = (struct encoding_map*)result;
    mresult->count2 = count2;
    mresult->count3 = count3;
    mlevel1 = mresult->level1;
    mlevel2 = mresult->level23;
    mlevel3 = mresult->level23 + 16*count2;
    memcpy(mlevel1, level1, 32);
    memset(mlevel2, 0xFF, 16*count2);
    memset(mlevel3, 0, 128*count3);
    count3 = 0;
    for (i = 1; i < length; i++) {
        int o1, o2, o3, i2, i3;
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (ch == 0xFFFE)
            /* unmapped character */
            continue;
        o1 = ch>>11;
        o2 = (ch>>7) & 0xF;
        i2 = 16*mlevel1[o1] + o2;
        if (mlevel2[i2] == 0xFF)
            mlevel2[i2] = count3++;
        o3 = ch & 0x7F;
        i3 = 128*mlevel2[i2] + o3;
        mlevel3[i3] = i;
    }
    return result;
}

static int
encoding_map_lookup(Py_UCS4 c, PyObject *mapping)
{
    struct encoding_map *map = (struct encoding_map*)mapping;
    int l1 = c>>11;
    int l2 = (c>>7) & 0xF;
    int l3 = c & 0x7F;
    int i;

    if (c > 0xFFFF)
        return -1;
    if (c == 0)
        return 0;
    /* level 1*/
    i = map->level1[l1];
    if (i == 0xFF) {
        return -1;
    }
    /* level 2*/
    i = map->level23[16*i+l2];
    if (i == 0xFF) {
        return -1;
    }
    /* level 3 */
    i = map->level23[16*map->count2 + 128*i + l3];
    if (i == 0) {
        return -1;
    }
    return i;
}

/* Lookup the character ch in the mapping. If the character
   can't be found, Py_None is returned (or NULL, if another
   error occurred). */
static PyObject *
charmapencode_lookup(Py_UCS4 c, PyObject *mapping)
{
    PyObject *w = PyLong_FromLong((long)c);
    PyObject *x;

    if (w == NULL)
        return NULL;
    x = PyObject_GetItem(mapping, w);
    Py_DECREF(w);
    if (x == NULL) {
        if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_LookupError)) {
            /* No mapping found means: mapping is undefined. */
            PyErr_Clear();
            x = Py_None;
            Py_INCREF(x);
            return x;
        } else
            return NULL;
    }
    else if (x == Py_None)
        return x;
    else if (PyLong_Check(x)) {
        long value = PyLong_AS_LONG(x);
        if (value < 0 || value > 255) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                            "character mapping must be in range(256)");
            Py_DECREF(x);
            return NULL;
        }
        return x;
    }
    else if (PyBytes_Check(x))
        return x;
    else {
        /* wrong return value */
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "character mapping must return integer, bytes or None, not %.400s",
                     x->ob_type->tp_name);
        Py_DECREF(x);
        return NULL;
    }
}

static int
charmapencode_resize(PyObject **outobj, Py_ssize_t *outpos, Py_ssize_t requiredsize)
{
    Py_ssize_t outsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(*outobj);
    /* exponentially overallocate to minimize reallocations */
    if (requiredsize < 2*outsize)
        requiredsize = 2*outsize;
    if (_PyBytes_Resize(outobj, requiredsize))
        return -1;
    return 0;
}

typedef enum charmapencode_result {
    enc_SUCCESS, enc_FAILED, enc_EXCEPTION
} charmapencode_result;
/* lookup the character, put the result in the output string and adjust
   various state variables. Resize the output bytes object if not enough
   space is available. Return a new reference to the object that
   was put in the output buffer, or Py_None, if the mapping was undefined
   (in which case no character was written) or NULL, if a
   reallocation error occurred. The caller must decref the result */
static charmapencode_result
charmapencode_output(Py_UCS4 c, PyObject *mapping,
                     PyObject **outobj, Py_ssize_t *outpos)
{
    PyObject *rep;
    char *outstart;
    Py_ssize_t outsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(*outobj);

    if (Py_TYPE(mapping) == &EncodingMapType) {
        int res = encoding_map_lookup(c, mapping);
        Py_ssize_t requiredsize = *outpos+1;
        if (res == -1)
            return enc_FAILED;
        if (outsize<requiredsize)
            if (charmapencode_resize(outobj, outpos, requiredsize))
                return enc_EXCEPTION;
        outstart = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outobj);
        outstart[(*outpos)++] = (char)res;
        return enc_SUCCESS;
    }

    rep = charmapencode_lookup(c, mapping);
    if (rep==NULL)
        return enc_EXCEPTION;
    else if (rep==Py_None) {
        Py_DECREF(rep);
        return enc_FAILED;
    } else {
        if (PyLong_Check(rep)) {
            Py_ssize_t requiredsize = *outpos+1;
            if (outsize<requiredsize)
                if (charmapencode_resize(outobj, outpos, requiredsize)) {
                    Py_DECREF(rep);
                    return enc_EXCEPTION;
                }
            outstart = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outobj);
            outstart[(*outpos)++] = (char)PyLong_AS_LONG(rep);
        }
        else {
            const char *repchars = PyBytes_AS_STRING(rep);
            Py_ssize_t repsize = PyBytes_GET_SIZE(rep);
            Py_ssize_t requiredsize = *outpos+repsize;
            if (outsize<requiredsize)
                if (charmapencode_resize(outobj, outpos, requiredsize)) {
                    Py_DECREF(rep);
                    return enc_EXCEPTION;
                }
            outstart = PyBytes_AS_STRING(*outobj);
            memcpy(outstart + *outpos, repchars, repsize);
            *outpos += repsize;
        }
    }
    Py_DECREF(rep);
    return enc_SUCCESS;
}

/* handle an error in PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap
   Return 0 on success, -1 on error */
static int
charmap_encoding_error(
    PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *inpos, PyObject *mapping,
    PyObject **exceptionObject,
    _Py_error_handler *error_handler, PyObject **error_handler_obj, const char *errors,
    PyObject **res, Py_ssize_t *respos)
{
    PyObject *repunicode = NULL; /* initialize to prevent gcc warning */
    Py_ssize_t size, repsize;
    Py_ssize_t newpos;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t index;
    /* startpos for collecting unencodable chars */
    Py_ssize_t collstartpos = *inpos;
    Py_ssize_t collendpos = *inpos+1;
    Py_ssize_t collpos;
    char *encoding = "charmap";
    char *reason = "character maps to <undefined>";
    charmapencode_result x;
    Py_UCS4 ch;
    int val;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return -1;
    size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    /* find all unencodable characters */
    while (collendpos < size) {
        PyObject *rep;
        if (Py_TYPE(mapping) == &EncodingMapType) {
            ch = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(unicode, collendpos);
            val = encoding_map_lookup(ch, mapping);
            if (val != -1)
                break;
            ++collendpos;
            continue;
        }

        ch = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(unicode, collendpos);
        rep = charmapencode_lookup(ch, mapping);
        if (rep==NULL)
            return -1;
        else if (rep!=Py_None) {
            Py_DECREF(rep);
            break;
        }
        Py_DECREF(rep);
        ++collendpos;
    }
    /* cache callback name lookup
     * (if not done yet, i.e. it's the first error) */
    if (*error_handler == _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN)
        *error_handler = get_error_handler(errors);

    switch (*error_handler) {
    case _Py_ERROR_STRICT:
        raise_encode_exception(exceptionObject, encoding, unicode, collstartpos, collendpos, reason);
        return -1;

    case _Py_ERROR_REPLACE:
        for (collpos = collstartpos; collpos<collendpos; ++collpos) {
            x = charmapencode_output('?', mapping, res, respos);
            if (x==enc_EXCEPTION) {
                return -1;
            }
            else if (x==enc_FAILED) {
                raise_encode_exception(exceptionObject, encoding, unicode, collstartpos, collendpos, reason);
                return -1;
            }
        }
        /* fall through */
    case _Py_ERROR_IGNORE:
        *inpos = collendpos;
        break;

    case _Py_ERROR_XMLCHARREFREPLACE:
        /* generate replacement (temporarily (mis)uses p) */
        for (collpos = collstartpos; collpos < collendpos; ++collpos) {
            char buffer[2+29+1+1];
            char *cp;
            sprintf(buffer, "&#%d;", (int)PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(unicode, collpos));
            for (cp = buffer; *cp; ++cp) {
                x = charmapencode_output(*cp, mapping, res, respos);
                if (x==enc_EXCEPTION)
                    return -1;
                else if (x==enc_FAILED) {
                    raise_encode_exception(exceptionObject, encoding, unicode, collstartpos, collendpos, reason);
                    return -1;
                }
            }
        }
        *inpos = collendpos;
        break;

    default:
        repunicode = unicode_encode_call_errorhandler(errors, error_handler_obj,
                                                      encoding, reason, unicode, exceptionObject,
                                                      collstartpos, collendpos, &newpos);
        if (repunicode == NULL)
            return -1;
        if (PyBytes_Check(repunicode)) {
            /* Directly copy bytes result to output. */
            Py_ssize_t outsize = PyBytes_Size(*res);
            Py_ssize_t requiredsize;
            repsize = PyBytes_Size(repunicode);
            requiredsize = *respos + repsize;
            if (requiredsize > outsize)
                /* Make room for all additional bytes. */
                if (charmapencode_resize(res, respos, requiredsize)) {
                    Py_DECREF(repunicode);
                    return -1;
                }
            memcpy(PyBytes_AsString(*res) + *respos,
                   PyBytes_AsString(repunicode),  repsize);
            *respos += repsize;
            *inpos = newpos;
            Py_DECREF(repunicode);
            break;
        }
        /* generate replacement  */
        if (PyUnicode_READY(repunicode) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(repunicode);
            return -1;
        }
        repsize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(repunicode);
        data = PyUnicode_DATA(repunicode);
        kind = PyUnicode_KIND(repunicode);
        for (index = 0; index < repsize; index++) {
            Py_UCS4 repch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, index);
            x = charmapencode_output(repch, mapping, res, respos);
            if (x==enc_EXCEPTION) {
                Py_DECREF(repunicode);
                return -1;
            }
            else if (x==enc_FAILED) {
                Py_DECREF(repunicode);
                raise_encode_exception(exceptionObject, encoding, unicode, collstartpos, collendpos, reason);
                return -1;
            }
        }
        *inpos = newpos;
        Py_DECREF(repunicode);
    }
    return 0;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(PyObject *unicode,
                         PyObject *mapping,
                         const char *errors)
{
    /* output object */
    PyObject *res = NULL;
    /* current input position */
    Py_ssize_t inpos = 0;
    Py_ssize_t size;
    /* current output position */
    Py_ssize_t respos = 0;
    PyObject *error_handler_obj = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    _Py_error_handler error_handler = _Py_ERROR_UNKNOWN;
    void *data;
    int kind;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);

    /* Default to Latin-1 */
    if (mapping == NULL)
        return unicode_encode_ucs1(unicode, errors, 256);

    /* allocate enough for a simple encoding without
       replacements, if we need more, we'll resize */
    res = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size);
    if (res == NULL)
        goto onError;
    if (size == 0)
        return res;

    while (inpos<size) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, inpos);
        /* try to encode it */
        charmapencode_result x = charmapencode_output(ch, mapping, &res, &respos);
        if (x==enc_EXCEPTION) /* error */
            goto onError;
        if (x==enc_FAILED) { /* unencodable character */
            if (charmap_encoding_error(unicode, &inpos, mapping,
                                       &exc,
                                       &error_handler, &error_handler_obj, errors,
                                       &res, &respos)) {
                goto onError;
            }
        }
        else
            /* done with this character => adjust input position */
            ++inpos;
    }

    /* Resize if we allocated to much */
    if (respos<PyBytes_GET_SIZE(res))
        if (_PyBytes_Resize(&res, respos) < 0)
            goto onError;

    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    return res;

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(res);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(error_handler_obj);
    return NULL;
}

/* Deprecated */
PyObject *
PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *p,
                        Py_ssize_t size,
                        PyObject *mapping,
                        const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(p, size);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    result = _PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(unicode, mapping, errors);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(PyObject *unicode,
                          PyObject *mapping)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode) || mapping == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    return _PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(unicode, mapping, NULL);
}

/* create or adjust a UnicodeTranslateError */
static void
make_translate_exception(PyObject **exceptionObject,
                         PyObject *unicode,
                         Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                         const char *reason)
{
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL) {
        *exceptionObject = _PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create(
            unicode, startpos, endpos, reason);
    }
    else {
        if (PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(*exceptionObject, startpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(*exceptionObject, endpos))
            goto onError;
        if (PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(*exceptionObject, reason))
            goto onError;
        return;
      onError:
        Py_CLEAR(*exceptionObject);
    }
}

/* error handling callback helper:
   build arguments, call the callback and check the arguments,
   put the result into newpos and return the replacement string, which
   has to be freed by the caller */
static PyObject *
unicode_translate_call_errorhandler(const char *errors,
                                    PyObject **errorHandler,
                                    const char *reason,
                                    PyObject *unicode, PyObject **exceptionObject,
                                    Py_ssize_t startpos, Py_ssize_t endpos,
                                    Py_ssize_t *newpos)
{
    static const char *argparse = "O!n;translating error handler must return (str, int) tuple";

    Py_ssize_t i_newpos;
    PyObject *restuple;
    PyObject *resunicode;

    if (*errorHandler == NULL) {
        *errorHandler = PyCodec_LookupError(errors);
        if (*errorHandler == NULL)
            return NULL;
    }

    make_translate_exception(exceptionObject,
                             unicode, startpos, endpos, reason);
    if (*exceptionObject == NULL)
        return NULL;

    restuple = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(
        *errorHandler, *exceptionObject, NULL);
    if (restuple == NULL)
        return NULL;
    if (!PyTuple_Check(restuple)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, &argparse[4]);
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(restuple, argparse, &PyUnicode_Type,
                          &resunicode, &i_newpos)) {
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (i_newpos<0)
        *newpos = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)+i_newpos;
    else
        *newpos = i_newpos;
    if (*newpos<0 || *newpos>PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_IndexError, "position %zd from error handler out of bounds", *newpos);
        Py_DECREF(restuple);
        return NULL;
    }
    Py_INCREF(resunicode);
    Py_DECREF(restuple);
    return resunicode;
}

/* Lookup the character ch in the mapping and put the result in result,
   which must be decrefed by the caller.
   Return 0 on success, -1 on error */
static int
charmaptranslate_lookup(Py_UCS4 c, PyObject *mapping, PyObject **result)
{
    PyObject *w = PyLong_FromLong((long)c);
    PyObject *x;

    if (w == NULL)
        return -1;
    x = PyObject_GetItem(mapping, w);
    Py_DECREF(w);
    if (x == NULL) {
        if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_LookupError)) {
            /* No mapping found means: use 1:1 mapping. */
            PyErr_Clear();
            *result = NULL;
            return 0;
        } else
            return -1;
    }
    else if (x == Py_None) {
        *result = x;
        return 0;
    }
    else if (PyLong_Check(x)) {
        long value = PyLong_AS_LONG(x);
        if (value < 0 || value > MAX_UNICODE) {
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                         "character mapping must be in range(0x%x)",
                         MAX_UNICODE+1);
            Py_DECREF(x);
            return -1;
        }
        *result = x;
        return 0;
    }
    else if (PyUnicode_Check(x)) {
        *result = x;
        return 0;
    }
    else {
        /* wrong return value */
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "character mapping must return integer, None or str");
        Py_DECREF(x);
        return -1;
    }
}

/* lookup the character, write the result into the writer.
   Return 1 if the result was written into the writer, return 0 if the mapping
   was undefined, raise an exception return -1 on error. */
static int
charmaptranslate_output(Py_UCS4 ch, PyObject *mapping,
                        _PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    PyObject *item;

    if (charmaptranslate_lookup(ch, mapping, &item))
        return -1;

    if (item == NULL) {
        /* not found => default to 1:1 mapping */
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, ch) < 0) {
            return -1;
        }
        return 1;
    }

    if (item == Py_None) {
        Py_DECREF(item);
        return 0;
    }

    if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
        long ch = (Py_UCS4)PyLong_AS_LONG(item);
        /* PyLong_AS_LONG() cannot fail, charmaptranslate_lookup() already
           used it */
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, ch) < 0) {
            Py_DECREF(item);
            return -1;
        }
        Py_DECREF(item);
        return 1;
    }

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(item)) {
        Py_DECREF(item);
        return -1;
    }

    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, item) < 0) {
        Py_DECREF(item);
        return -1;
    }

    Py_DECREF(item);
    return 1;
}

static int
unicode_fast_translate_lookup(PyObject *mapping, Py_UCS1 ch,
                              Py_UCS1 *translate)
{
    PyObject *item = NULL;
    int ret = 0;

    if (charmaptranslate_lookup(ch, mapping, &item)) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (item == Py_None) {
        /* deletion */
        translate[ch] = 0xfe;
    }
    else if (item == NULL) {
        /* not found => default to 1:1 mapping */
        translate[ch] = ch;
        return 1;
    }
    else if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
        long replace = PyLong_AS_LONG(item);
        /* PyLong_AS_LONG() cannot fail, charmaptranslate_lookup() already
           used it */
        if (127 < replace) {
            /* invalid character or character outside ASCII:
               skip the fast translate */
            goto exit;
        }
        translate[ch] = (Py_UCS1)replace;
    }
    else if (PyUnicode_Check(item)) {
        Py_UCS4 replace;

        if (PyUnicode_READY(item) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(item);
            return -1;
        }
        if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(item) != 1)
            goto exit;

        replace = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(item, 0);
        if (replace > 127)
            goto exit;
        translate[ch] = (Py_UCS1)replace;
    }
    else {
        /* not None, NULL, long or unicode */
        goto exit;
    }
    ret = 1;

  exit:
    Py_DECREF(item);
    return ret;
}

/* Fast path for ascii => ascii translation. Return 1 if the whole string
   was translated into writer, return 0 if the input string was partially
   translated into writer, raise an exception and return -1 on error. */
static int
unicode_fast_translate(PyObject *input, PyObject *mapping,
                       _PyUnicodeWriter *writer, int ignore,
                       Py_ssize_t *input_pos)
{
    Py_UCS1 ascii_table[128], ch, ch2;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    Py_UCS1 *in, *end, *out;
    int res = 0;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(input);

    memset(ascii_table, 0xff, 128);

    in = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(input);
    end = in + len;

    assert(PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(writer->buffer));
    assert(PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(writer->buffer) == len);
    out = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(writer->buffer);

    for (; in < end; in++) {
        ch = *in;
        ch2 = ascii_table[ch];
        if (ch2 == 0xff) {
            int translate = unicode_fast_translate_lookup(mapping, ch,
                                                          ascii_table);
            if (translate < 0)
                return -1;
            if (translate == 0)
                goto exit;
            ch2 = ascii_table[ch];
        }
        if (ch2 == 0xfe) {
            if (ignore)
                continue;
            goto exit;
        }
        assert(ch2 < 128);
        *out = ch2;
        out++;
    }
    res = 1;

exit:
    writer->pos = out - PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(writer->buffer);
    *input_pos = in - PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(input);
    return res;
}

static PyObject *
_PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(PyObject *input,
                            PyObject *mapping,
                            const char *errors)
{
    /* input object */
    char *data;
    Py_ssize_t size, i;
    int kind;
    /* output buffer */
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    /* error handler */
    char *reason = "character maps to <undefined>";
    PyObject *errorHandler = NULL;
    PyObject *exc = NULL;
    int ignore;
    int res;

    if (mapping == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(input) == -1)
        return NULL;
    data = (char*)PyUnicode_DATA(input);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(input);
    size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(input);

    if (size == 0)
        return PyUnicode_FromObject(input);

    /* allocate enough for a simple 1:1 translation without
       replacements, if we need more, we'll resize */
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(&writer, size, 127) == -1)
        goto onError;

    ignore = (errors != NULL && strcmp(errors, "ignore") == 0);

    if (PyUnicode_READY(input) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(input)) {
        res = unicode_fast_translate(input, mapping, &writer, ignore, &i);
        if (res < 0) {
            _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
            return NULL;
        }
        if (res == 1)
            return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);
    }
    else {
        i = 0;
    }

    while (i<size) {
        /* try to encode it */
        int translate;
        PyObject *repunicode = NULL; /* initialize to prevent gcc warning */
        Py_ssize_t newpos;
        /* startpos for collecting untranslatable chars */
        Py_ssize_t collstart;
        Py_ssize_t collend;
        Py_UCS4 ch;

        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        translate = charmaptranslate_output(ch, mapping, &writer);
        if (translate < 0)
            goto onError;

        if (translate != 0) {
            /* it worked => adjust input pointer */
            ++i;
            continue;
        }

        /* untranslatable character */
        collstart = i;
        collend = i+1;

        /* find all untranslatable characters */
        while (collend < size) {
            PyObject *x;
            ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, collend);
            if (charmaptranslate_lookup(ch, mapping, &x))
                goto onError;
            Py_XDECREF(x);
            if (x != Py_None)
                break;
            ++collend;
        }

        if (ignore) {
            i = collend;
        }
        else {
            repunicode = unicode_translate_call_errorhandler(errors, &errorHandler,
                                                             reason, input, &exc,
                                                             collstart, collend, &newpos);
            if (repunicode == NULL)
                goto onError;
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, repunicode) < 0) {
                Py_DECREF(repunicode);
                goto onError;
            }
            Py_DECREF(repunicode);
            i = newpos;
        }
    }
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
    Py_XDECREF(exc);
    Py_XDECREF(errorHandler);
    return NULL;
}

/* Deprecated. Use PyUnicode_Translate instead. */
PyObject *
PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *p,
                           Py_ssize_t size,
                           PyObject *mapping,
                           const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *result;
    PyObject *unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(p, size);
    if (!unicode)
        return NULL;
    result = _PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(unicode, mapping, errors);
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return result;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *str,
                    PyObject *mapping,
                    const char *errors)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0)
        return NULL;
    return _PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(str, mapping, errors);
}

static Py_UCS4
fix_decimal_and_space_to_ascii(PyObject *self)
{
    /* No need to call PyUnicode_READY(self) because this function is only
       called as a callback from fixup() which does it already. */
    const Py_ssize_t len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    const int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    Py_UCS4 maxchar = 127, ch, fixed;
    int modified = 0;
    Py_ssize_t i;

    for (i = 0; i < len; ++i) {
        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        fixed = 0;
        if (ch > 127) {
            if (Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(ch))
                fixed = ' ';
            else {
                const int decimal = Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(ch);
                if (decimal >= 0)
                    fixed = '0' + decimal;
            }
            if (fixed != 0) {
                modified = 1;
                maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, fixed);
                PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, i, fixed);
            }
            else
                maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, ch);
        }
    }

    return (modified) ? maxchar : 0;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_TransformDecimalAndSpaceToASCII(PyObject *unicode)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode) <= 127) {
        /* If the string is already ASCII, just return the same string */
        Py_INCREF(unicode);
        return unicode;
    }
    return fixup(unicode, fix_decimal_and_space_to_ascii);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII(Py_UNICODE *s,
                                  Py_ssize_t length)
{
    PyObject *decimal;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;

    maxchar = 127;
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = s[i];
        if (ch > 127) {
            int decimal = Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(ch);
            if (decimal >= 0)
                ch = '0' + decimal;
            maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, ch);
        }
    }

    /* Copy to a new string */
    decimal = PyUnicode_New(length, maxchar);
    if (decimal == NULL)
        return decimal;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(decimal);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(decimal);
    /* Iterate over code points */
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = s[i];
        if (ch > 127) {
            int decimal = Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(ch);
            if (decimal >= 0)
                ch = '0' + decimal;
        }
        PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, i, ch);
    }
    return unicode_result(decimal);
}
/* --- Decimal Encoder ---------------------------------------------------- */

int
PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal(Py_UNICODE *s,
                        Py_ssize_t length,
                        char *output,
                        const char *errors)
{
    PyObject *unicode;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *data;

    if (output == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return -1;
    }

    unicode = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(s, length);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return -1;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        return -1;
    }
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);

    for (i=0; i < length; ) {
        PyObject *exc;
        Py_UCS4 ch;
        int decimal;
        Py_ssize_t startpos;

        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        if (Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(ch)) {
            *output++ = ' ';
            i++;
            continue;
        }
        decimal = Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(ch);
        if (decimal >= 0) {
            *output++ = '0' + decimal;
            i++;
            continue;
        }
        if (0 < ch && ch < 256) {
            *output++ = (char)ch;
            i++;
            continue;
        }

        startpos = i;
        exc = NULL;
        raise_encode_exception(&exc, "decimal", unicode,
                               startpos, startpos+1,
                               "invalid decimal Unicode string");
        Py_XDECREF(exc);
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        return -1;
    }
    /* 0-terminate the output string */
    *output++ = '\0';
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return 0;
}

/* --- Helpers ------------------------------------------------------------ */

/* helper macro to fixup start/end slice values */
#define ADJUST_INDICES(start, end, len)         \
    if (end > len)                              \
        end = len;                              \
    else if (end < 0) {                         \
        end += len;                             \
        if (end < 0)                            \
            end = 0;                            \
    }                                           \
    if (start < 0) {                            \
        start += len;                           \
        if (start < 0)                          \
            start = 0;                          \
    }

static Py_ssize_t
any_find_slice(PyObject* s1, PyObject* s2,
               Py_ssize_t start,
               Py_ssize_t end,
               int direction)
{
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2, result;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(s1);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(s2);
    if (kind1 < kind2)
        return -1;

    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(s1);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(s2);
    ADJUST_INDICES(start, end, len1);
    if (end - start < len2)
        return -1;

    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(s1);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(s2);
    if (len2 == 1) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind2, buf2, 0);
        result = findchar((const char *)buf1 + kind1*start,
                          kind1, end - start, ch, direction);
        if (result == -1)
            return -1;
        else
            return start + result;
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(s2, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return -2;
    }

    if (direction > 0) {
        switch (kind1) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(s1) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(s2))
                result = asciilib_find_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            else
                result = ucs1lib_find_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            result = ucs2lib_find_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            result = ucs4lib_find_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        default:
            assert(0); result = -2;
        }
    }
    else {
        switch (kind1) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(s1) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(s2))
                result = asciilib_rfind_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            else
                result = ucs1lib_rfind_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            result = ucs2lib_rfind_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            result = ucs4lib_rfind_slice(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, start, end);
            break;
        default:
            assert(0); result = -2;
        }
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return result;
}

Py_ssize_t
_PyUnicode_InsertThousandsGrouping(
    PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index,
    Py_ssize_t n_buffer,
    void *digits, Py_ssize_t n_digits,
    Py_ssize_t min_width,
    const char *grouping, PyObject *thousands_sep,
    Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    unsigned int kind, thousands_sep_kind;
    char *data, *thousands_sep_data;
    Py_ssize_t thousands_sep_len;
    Py_ssize_t len;

    if (unicode != NULL) {
        kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
        data = (char *) PyUnicode_DATA(unicode) + index * kind;
    }
    else {
        kind = PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND;
        data = NULL;
    }
    thousands_sep_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(thousands_sep);
    thousands_sep_data = PyUnicode_DATA(thousands_sep);
    thousands_sep_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(thousands_sep);
    if (unicode != NULL && thousands_sep_kind != kind) {
        if (thousands_sep_kind < kind) {
            thousands_sep_data = _PyUnicode_AsKind(thousands_sep, kind);
            if (!thousands_sep_data)
                return -1;
        }
        else {
            data = _PyUnicode_AsKind(unicode, thousands_sep_kind);
            if (!data)
                return -1;
        }
    }

    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (unicode != NULL && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(unicode))
            len = asciilib_InsertThousandsGrouping(
                (Py_UCS1 *) data, n_buffer, (Py_UCS1 *) digits, n_digits,
                min_width, grouping,
                (Py_UCS1 *) thousands_sep_data, thousands_sep_len);
        else
            len = ucs1lib_InsertThousandsGrouping(
                (Py_UCS1*)data, n_buffer, (Py_UCS1*)digits, n_digits,
                min_width, grouping,
                (Py_UCS1 *) thousands_sep_data, thousands_sep_len);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        len = ucs2lib_InsertThousandsGrouping(
            (Py_UCS2 *) data, n_buffer, (Py_UCS2 *) digits, n_digits,
            min_width, grouping,
            (Py_UCS2 *) thousands_sep_data, thousands_sep_len);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        len = ucs4lib_InsertThousandsGrouping(
            (Py_UCS4 *) data, n_buffer, (Py_UCS4 *) digits, n_digits,
            min_width, grouping,
            (Py_UCS4 *) thousands_sep_data, thousands_sep_len);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
        return -1;
    }
    if (unicode != NULL && thousands_sep_kind != kind) {
        if (thousands_sep_kind < kind)
            PyMem_Free(thousands_sep_data);
        else
            PyMem_Free(data);
    }
    if (unicode == NULL) {
        *maxchar = 127;
        if (len != n_digits) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar,
                                   PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(thousands_sep));
        }
    }
    return len;
}


Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *str,
                PyObject *substr,
                Py_ssize_t start,
                Py_ssize_t end)
{
    Py_ssize_t result;
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1 = NULL, *buf2 = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;

    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0 || ensure_unicode(substr) < 0)
        return -1;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(substr);
    if (kind1 < kind2)
        return 0;

    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substr);
    ADJUST_INDICES(start, end, len1);
    if (end - start < len2)
        return 0;

    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(substr);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(substr, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            goto onError;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(substr))
            result = asciilib_count(
                ((Py_UCS1*)buf1) + start, end - start,
                buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
                );
        else
            result = ucs1lib_count(
                ((Py_UCS1*)buf1) + start, end - start,
                buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
                );
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        result = ucs2lib_count(
            ((Py_UCS2*)buf1) + start, end - start,
            buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
            );
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        result = ucs4lib_count(
            ((Py_UCS4*)buf1) + start, end - start,
            buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
            );
        break;
    default:
        assert(0); result = 0;
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return result;
  onError:
    if (kind2 != kind1 && buf2)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);
    return -1;
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *str,
               PyObject *substr,
               Py_ssize_t start,
               Py_ssize_t end,
               int direction)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0 || ensure_unicode(substr) < 0)
        return -2;

    return any_find_slice(str, substr, start, end, direction);
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_FindChar(PyObject *str, Py_UCS4 ch,
                   Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
                   int direction)
{
    int kind;
    Py_ssize_t result;
    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return -2;
    if (start < 0 || end < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return -2;
    }
    if (end > PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str))
        end = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    if (start >= end)
        return -1;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    result = findchar(PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(str) + kind*start,
                      kind, end-start, ch, direction);
    if (result == -1)
        return -1;
    else
        return start + result;
}

static int
tailmatch(PyObject *self,
          PyObject *substring,
          Py_ssize_t start,
          Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
{
    int kind_self;
    int kind_sub;
    void *data_self;
    void *data_sub;
    Py_ssize_t offset;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    Py_ssize_t end_sub;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1 ||
        PyUnicode_READY(substring) == -1)
        return -1;

    ADJUST_INDICES(start, end, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self));
    end -= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring);
    if (end < start)
        return 0;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring) == 0)
        return 1;

    kind_self = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data_self = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    kind_sub = PyUnicode_KIND(substring);
    data_sub = PyUnicode_DATA(substring);
    end_sub = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring) - 1;

    if (direction > 0)
        offset = end;
    else
        offset = start;

    if (PyUnicode_READ(kind_self, data_self, offset) ==
        PyUnicode_READ(kind_sub, data_sub, 0) &&
        PyUnicode_READ(kind_self, data_self, offset + end_sub) ==
        PyUnicode_READ(kind_sub, data_sub, end_sub)) {
        /* If both are of the same kind, memcmp is sufficient */
        if (kind_self == kind_sub) {
            return ! memcmp((char *)data_self +
                                (offset * PyUnicode_KIND(substring)),
                            data_sub,
                            PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring) *
                                PyUnicode_KIND(substring));
        }
        /* otherwise we have to compare each character by first accessing it */
        else {
            /* We do not need to compare 0 and len(substring)-1 because
               the if statement above ensured already that they are equal
               when we end up here. */
            for (i = 1; i < end_sub; ++i) {
                if (PyUnicode_READ(kind_self, data_self, offset + i) !=
                    PyUnicode_READ(kind_sub, data_sub, i))
                    return 0;
            }
            return 1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *str,
                    PyObject *substr,
                    Py_ssize_t start,
                    Py_ssize_t end,
                    int direction)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0 || ensure_unicode(substr) < 0)
        return -1;

    return tailmatch(str, substr, start, end, direction);
}

/* Apply fixfct filter to the Unicode object self and return a
   reference to the modified object */

static PyObject *
fixup(PyObject *self,
      Py_UCS4 (*fixfct)(PyObject *s))
{
    PyObject *u;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar_old, maxchar_new = 0;
    PyObject *v;

    u = _PyUnicode_Copy(self);
    if (u == NULL)
        return NULL;
    maxchar_old = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(u);

    /* fix functions return the new maximum character in a string,
       if the kind of the resulting unicode object does not change,
       everything is fine.  Otherwise we need to change the string kind
       and re-run the fix function. */
    maxchar_new = fixfct(u);

    if (maxchar_new == 0) {
        /* no changes */;
        if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(self)) {
            Py_DECREF(u);
            Py_INCREF(self);
            return self;
        }
        else
            return u;
    }

    maxchar_new = align_maxchar(maxchar_new);

    if (maxchar_new == maxchar_old)
        return u;

    /* In case the maximum character changed, we need to
       convert the string to the new category. */
    v = PyUnicode_New(PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxchar_new);
    if (v == NULL) {
        Py_DECREF(u);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (maxchar_new > maxchar_old) {
        /* If the maxchar increased so that the kind changed, not all
           characters are representable anymore and we need to fix the
           string again. This only happens in very few cases. */
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(v, 0,
                                      self, 0, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self));
        maxchar_old = fixfct(v);
        assert(maxchar_old > 0 && maxchar_old <= maxchar_new);
    }
    else {
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(v, 0,
                                      u, 0, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self));
    }
    Py_DECREF(u);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(v, 1));
    return v;
}

static PyObject *
ascii_upper_or_lower(PyObject *self, int lower)
{
    Py_ssize_t len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    char *resdata, *data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    PyObject *res;

    res = PyUnicode_New(len, 127);
    if (res == NULL)
        return NULL;
    resdata = PyUnicode_DATA(res);
    if (lower)
        _Py_bytes_lower(resdata, data, len);
    else
        _Py_bytes_upper(resdata, data, len);
    return res;
}

static Py_UCS4
handle_capital_sigma(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t i)
{
    Py_ssize_t j;
    int final_sigma;
    Py_UCS4 c = 0;   /* initialize to prevent gcc warning */
    /* U+03A3 is in the Final_Sigma context when, it is found like this:

     \p{cased}\p{case-ignorable}*U+03A3!(\p{case-ignorable}*\p{cased})

    where ! is a negation and \p{xxx} is a character with property xxx.
    */
    for (j = i - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
        c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, j);
        if (!_PyUnicode_IsCaseIgnorable(c))
            break;
    }
    final_sigma = j >= 0 && _PyUnicode_IsCased(c);
    if (final_sigma) {
        for (j = i + 1; j < length; j++) {
            c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, j);
            if (!_PyUnicode_IsCaseIgnorable(c))
                break;
        }
        final_sigma = j == length || !_PyUnicode_IsCased(c);
    }
    return (final_sigma) ? 0x3C2 : 0x3C3;
}

static int
lower_ucs4(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t i,
           Py_UCS4 c, Py_UCS4 *mapped)
{
    /* Obscure special case. */
    if (c == 0x3A3) {
        mapped[0] = handle_capital_sigma(kind, data, length, i);
        return 1;
    }
    return _PyUnicode_ToLowerFull(c, mapped);
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_capitalize(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, k = 0;
    int n_res, j;
    Py_UCS4 c, mapped[3];

    c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
    n_res = _PyUnicode_ToUpperFull(c, mapped);
    for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
        *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
        res[k++] = mapped[j];
    }
    for (i = 1; i < length; i++) {
        c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        n_res = lower_ucs4(kind, data, length, i, c, mapped);
        for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
            res[k++] = mapped[j];
        }
    }
    return k;
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_swapcase(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar) {
    Py_ssize_t i, k = 0;

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i), mapped[3];
        int n_res, j;
        if (Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(c)) {
            n_res = lower_ucs4(kind, data, length, i, c, mapped);
        }
        else if (Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(c)) {
            n_res = _PyUnicode_ToUpperFull(c, mapped);
        }
        else {
            n_res = 1;
            mapped[0] = c;
        }
        for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
            res[k++] = mapped[j];
        }
    }
    return k;
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_upper_or_lower(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res,
                  Py_UCS4 *maxchar, int lower)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, k = 0;

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i), mapped[3];
        int n_res, j;
        if (lower)
            n_res = lower_ucs4(kind, data, length, i, c, mapped);
        else
            n_res = _PyUnicode_ToUpperFull(c, mapped);
        for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
            res[k++] = mapped[j];
        }
    }
    return k;
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_upper(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    return do_upper_or_lower(kind, data, length, res, maxchar, 0);
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_lower(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    return do_upper_or_lower(kind, data, length, res, maxchar, 1);
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_casefold(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, k = 0;

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        Py_UCS4 mapped[3];
        int j, n_res = _PyUnicode_ToFoldedFull(c, mapped);
        for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
            res[k++] = mapped[j];
        }
    }
    return k;
}

static Py_ssize_t
do_title(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 *res, Py_UCS4 *maxchar)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, k = 0;
    int previous_is_cased;

    previous_is_cased = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 c = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        Py_UCS4 mapped[3];
        int n_res, j;

        if (previous_is_cased)
            n_res = lower_ucs4(kind, data, length, i, c, mapped);
        else
            n_res = _PyUnicode_ToTitleFull(c, mapped);

        for (j = 0; j < n_res; j++) {
            *maxchar = Py_MAX(*maxchar, mapped[j]);
            res[k++] = mapped[j];
        }

        previous_is_cased = _PyUnicode_IsCased(c);
    }
    return k;
}

static PyObject *
case_operation(PyObject *self,
               Py_ssize_t (*perform)(int, void *, Py_ssize_t, Py_UCS4 *, Py_UCS4 *))
{
    PyObject *res = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t length, newlength = 0;
    int kind, outkind;
    void *data, *outdata;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar = 0, *tmp, *tmpend;

    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(self));

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    if ((size_t) length > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (3 * sizeof(Py_UCS4))) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError, "string is too long");
        return NULL;
    }
    tmp = PyMem_MALLOC(sizeof(Py_UCS4) * 3 * length);
    if (tmp == NULL)
        return PyErr_NoMemory();
    newlength = perform(kind, data, length, tmp, &maxchar);
    res = PyUnicode_New(newlength, maxchar);
    if (res == NULL)
        goto leave;
    tmpend = tmp + newlength;
    outdata = PyUnicode_DATA(res);
    outkind = PyUnicode_KIND(res);
    switch (outkind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS1, tmp, tmpend, outdata);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS2, tmp, tmpend, outdata);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        memcpy(outdata, tmp, sizeof(Py_UCS4) * newlength);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
        break;
    }
  leave:
    PyMem_FREE(tmp);
    return res;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Join(PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq)
{
    PyObject *res;
    PyObject *fseq;
    Py_ssize_t seqlen;
    PyObject **items;

    fseq = PySequence_Fast(seq, "can only join an iterable");
    if (fseq == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }

    /* NOTE: the following code can't call back into Python code,
     * so we are sure that fseq won't be mutated.
     */

    items = PySequence_Fast_ITEMS(fseq);
    seqlen = PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(fseq);
    res = _PyUnicode_JoinArray(separator, items, seqlen);
    Py_DECREF(fseq);
    return res;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicode_JoinArray(PyObject *separator, PyObject **items, Py_ssize_t seqlen)
{
    PyObject *res = NULL; /* the result */
    PyObject *sep = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t seplen;
    PyObject *item;
    Py_ssize_t sz, i, res_offset;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    Py_UCS4 item_maxchar;
    int use_memcpy;
    unsigned char *res_data = NULL, *sep_data = NULL;
    PyObject *last_obj;
    unsigned int kind = 0;

    /* If empty sequence, return u"". */
    if (seqlen == 0) {
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }

    /* If singleton sequence with an exact Unicode, return that. */
    last_obj = NULL;
    if (seqlen == 1) {
        if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(items[0])) {
            res = items[0];
            Py_INCREF(res);
            return res;
        }
        seplen = 0;
        maxchar = 0;
    }
    else {
        /* Set up sep and seplen */
        if (separator == NULL) {
            /* fall back to a blank space separator */
            sep = PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(' ');
            if (!sep)
                goto onError;
            seplen = 1;
            maxchar = 32;
        }
        else {
            if (!PyUnicode_Check(separator)) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "separator: expected str instance,"
                             " %.80s found",
                             Py_TYPE(separator)->tp_name);
                goto onError;
            }
            if (PyUnicode_READY(separator))
                goto onError;
            sep = separator;
            seplen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(separator);
            maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(separator);
            /* inc refcount to keep this code path symmetric with the
               above case of a blank separator */
            Py_INCREF(sep);
        }
        last_obj = sep;
    }

    /* There are at least two things to join, or else we have a subclass
     * of str in the sequence.
     * Do a pre-pass to figure out the total amount of space we'll
     * need (sz), and see whether all argument are strings.
     */
    sz = 0;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    use_memcpy = 0;
#else
    use_memcpy = 1;
#endif
    for (i = 0; i < seqlen; i++) {
        const Py_ssize_t old_sz = sz;
        item = items[i];
        if (!PyUnicode_Check(item)) {
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                         "sequence item %zd: expected str instance,"
                         " %.80s found",
                         i, Py_TYPE(item)->tp_name);
            goto onError;
        }
        if (PyUnicode_READY(item) == -1)
            goto onError;
        sz += PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(item);
        item_maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(item);
        maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, item_maxchar);
        if (i != 0)
            sz += seplen;
        if (sz < old_sz || sz > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "join() result is too long for a Python string");
            goto onError;
        }
        if (use_memcpy && last_obj != NULL) {
            if (PyUnicode_KIND(last_obj) != PyUnicode_KIND(item))
                use_memcpy = 0;
        }
        last_obj = item;
    }

    res = PyUnicode_New(sz, maxchar);
    if (res == NULL)
        goto onError;

    /* Catenate everything. */
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    use_memcpy = 0;
#else
    if (use_memcpy) {
        res_data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(res);
        kind = PyUnicode_KIND(res);
        if (seplen != 0)
            sep_data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(sep);
    }
#endif
    if (use_memcpy) {
        for (i = 0; i < seqlen; ++i) {
            Py_ssize_t itemlen;
            item = items[i];

            /* Copy item, and maybe the separator. */
            if (i && seplen != 0) {
                Py_MEMCPY(res_data,
                          sep_data,
                          kind * seplen);
                res_data += kind * seplen;
            }

            itemlen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(item);
            if (itemlen != 0) {
                Py_MEMCPY(res_data,
                          PyUnicode_DATA(item),
                          kind * itemlen);
                res_data += kind * itemlen;
            }
        }
        assert(res_data == PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(res)
                           + kind * PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(res));
    }
    else {
        for (i = 0, res_offset = 0; i < seqlen; ++i) {
            Py_ssize_t itemlen;
            item = items[i];

            /* Copy item, and maybe the separator. */
            if (i && seplen != 0) {
                _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(res, res_offset, sep, 0, seplen);
                res_offset += seplen;
            }

            itemlen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(item);
            if (itemlen != 0) {
                _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(res, res_offset, item, 0, itemlen);
                res_offset += itemlen;
            }
        }
        assert(res_offset == PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(res));
    }

    Py_XDECREF(sep);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(res, 1));
    return res;

  onError:
    Py_XDECREF(sep);
    Py_XDECREF(res);
    return NULL;
}

#define FILL(kind, data, value, start, length) \
    do { \
        Py_ssize_t i_ = 0; \
        assert(kind != PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND); \
        switch ((kind)) { \
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: { \
            unsigned char * to_ = (unsigned char *)((data)) + (start); \
            memset(to_, (unsigned char)value, (length)); \
            break; \
        } \
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: { \
            Py_UCS2 * to_ = (Py_UCS2 *)((data)) + (start); \
            for (; i_ < (length); ++i_, ++to_) *to_ = (value); \
            break; \
        } \
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: { \
            Py_UCS4 * to_ = (Py_UCS4 *)((data)) + (start); \
            for (; i_ < (length); ++i_, ++to_) *to_ = (value); \
            break; \
        } \
        default: assert(0); \
        } \
    } while (0)

void
_PyUnicode_FastFill(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length,
                    Py_UCS4 fill_char)
{
    const enum PyUnicode_Kind kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    const void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(unicode));
    assert(unicode_modifiable(unicode));
    assert(fill_char <= PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode));
    assert(start >= 0);
    assert(start + length <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode));
    FILL(kind, data, fill_char, start, length);
}

Py_ssize_t
PyUnicode_Fill(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length,
               Py_UCS4 fill_char)
{
    Py_ssize_t maxlen;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return -1;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return -1;
    if (unicode_check_modifiable(unicode))
        return -1;

    if (start < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return -1;
    }
    if (fill_char > PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                         "fill character is bigger than "
                         "the string maximum character");
        return -1;
    }

    maxlen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode) - start;
    length = Py_MIN(maxlen, length);
    if (length <= 0)
        return 0;

    _PyUnicode_FastFill(unicode, start, length, fill_char);
    return length;
}

static PyObject *
pad(PyObject *self,
    Py_ssize_t left,
    Py_ssize_t right,
    Py_UCS4 fill)
{
    PyObject *u;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (left < 0)
        left = 0;
    if (right < 0)
        right = 0;

    if (left == 0 && right == 0)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    if (left > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self) ||
        right > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - (left + _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self))) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError, "padded string is too long");
        return NULL;
    }
    maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(self);
    maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, fill);
    u = PyUnicode_New(left + _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self) + right, maxchar);
    if (!u)
        return NULL;

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(u);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(u);
    if (left)
        FILL(kind, data, fill, 0, left);
    if (right)
        FILL(kind, data, fill, left + _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self), right);
    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(u, left, self, 0, _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self));
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(u, 1));
    return u;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Splitlines(PyObject *string, int keepends)
{
    PyObject *list;

    if (ensure_unicode(string) < 0)
        return NULL;

    switch (PyUnicode_KIND(string)) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(string))
            list = asciilib_splitlines(
                string, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(string),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string), keepends);
        else
            list = ucs1lib_splitlines(
                string, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(string),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string), keepends);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        list = ucs2lib_splitlines(
            string, PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(string),
            PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string), keepends);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        list = ucs4lib_splitlines(
            string, PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(string),
            PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(string), keepends);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
        list = 0;
    }
    return list;
}

static PyObject *
split(PyObject *self,
      PyObject *substring,
      Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;
    PyObject* out;

    if (maxcount < 0)
        maxcount = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (substring == NULL)
        switch (PyUnicode_KIND(self)) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self))
                return asciilib_split_whitespace(
                    self,  PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self),
                    PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                    );
            else
                return ucs1lib_split_whitespace(
                    self,  PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self),
                    PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                    );
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            return ucs2lib_split_whitespace(
                self,  PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(self),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                );
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            return ucs4lib_split_whitespace(
                self,  PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(self),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                );
        default:
            assert(0);
            return NULL;
        }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(substring) == -1)
        return NULL;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(substring);
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring);
    if (kind1 < kind2 || len1 < len2) {
        out = PyList_New(1);
        if (out == NULL)
            return NULL;
        Py_INCREF(self);
        PyList_SET_ITEM(out, 0, self);
        return out;
    }
    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(substring);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(substring, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return NULL;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(substring))
            out = asciilib_split(
                self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        else
            out = ucs1lib_split(
                self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs2lib_split(
            self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs4lib_split(
            self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    default:
        out = NULL;
    }
    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);
    return out;
}

static PyObject *
rsplit(PyObject *self,
       PyObject *substring,
       Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;
    PyObject* out;

    if (maxcount < 0)
        maxcount = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (substring == NULL)
        switch (PyUnicode_KIND(self)) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self))
                return asciilib_rsplit_whitespace(
                    self,  PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self),
                    PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                    );
            else
                return ucs1lib_rsplit_whitespace(
                    self,  PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self),
                    PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                    );
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            return ucs2lib_rsplit_whitespace(
                self,  PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(self),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                );
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            return ucs4lib_rsplit_whitespace(
                self,  PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(self),
                PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), maxcount
                );
        default:
            assert(0);
            return NULL;
        }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(substring) == -1)
        return NULL;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(substring);
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring);
    if (kind1 < kind2 || len1 < len2) {
        out = PyList_New(1);
        if (out == NULL)
            return NULL;
        Py_INCREF(self);
        PyList_SET_ITEM(out, 0, self);
        return out;
    }
    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(substring);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(substring, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return NULL;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(substring))
            out = asciilib_rsplit(
                self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        else
            out = ucs1lib_rsplit(
                self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs2lib_rsplit(
            self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs4lib_rsplit(
            self,  buf1, len1, buf2, len2, maxcount);
        break;
    default:
        out = NULL;
    }
    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);
    return out;
}

static Py_ssize_t
anylib_find(int kind, PyObject *str1, void *buf1, Py_ssize_t len1,
            PyObject *str2, void *buf2, Py_ssize_t len2, Py_ssize_t offset)
{
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str1) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str2))
            return asciilib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, offset);
        else
            return ucs1lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, offset);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs2lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, offset);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs4lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, offset);
    }
    assert(0);
    return -1;
}

static Py_ssize_t
anylib_count(int kind, PyObject *sstr, void* sbuf, Py_ssize_t slen,
             PyObject *str1, void *buf1, Py_ssize_t len1, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    switch (kind) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(sstr) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str1))
            return asciilib_count(sbuf, slen, buf1, len1, maxcount);
        else
            return ucs1lib_count(sbuf, slen, buf1, len1, maxcount);
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs2lib_count(sbuf, slen, buf1, len1, maxcount);
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        return ucs4lib_count(sbuf, slen, buf1, len1, maxcount);
    }
    assert(0);
    return 0;
}

static void
replace_1char_inplace(PyObject *u, Py_ssize_t pos,
                      Py_UCS4 u1, Py_UCS4 u2, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(u);
    void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(u);
    Py_ssize_t len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(u);
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        ucs1lib_replace_1char_inplace((Py_UCS1 *)data + pos,
                                      (Py_UCS1 *)data + len,
                                      u1, u2, maxcount);
    }
    else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
        ucs2lib_replace_1char_inplace((Py_UCS2 *)data + pos,
                                      (Py_UCS2 *)data + len,
                                      u1, u2, maxcount);
    }
    else {
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        ucs4lib_replace_1char_inplace((Py_UCS4 *)data + pos,
                                      (Py_UCS4 *)data + len,
                                      u1, u2, maxcount);
    }
}

static PyObject *
replace(PyObject *self, PyObject *str1,
        PyObject *str2, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    PyObject *u;
    char *sbuf = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    char *buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str1);
    char *buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(str2);
    int srelease = 0, release1 = 0, release2 = 0;
    int skind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    int kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str1);
    int kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(str2);
    Py_ssize_t slen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    Py_ssize_t len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str1);
    Py_ssize_t len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str2);
    int mayshrink;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar, maxchar_str1, maxchar_str2;

    if (maxcount < 0)
        maxcount = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;
    else if (maxcount == 0 || slen == 0)
        goto nothing;

    if (str1 == str2)
        goto nothing;

    maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(self);
    maxchar_str1 = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str1);
    if (maxchar < maxchar_str1)
        /* substring too wide to be present */
        goto nothing;
    maxchar_str2 = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str2);
    /* Replacing str1 with str2 may cause a maxchar reduction in the
       result string. */
    mayshrink = (maxchar_str2 < maxchar_str1) && (maxchar == maxchar_str1);
    maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, maxchar_str2);

    if (len1 == len2) {
        /* same length */
        if (len1 == 0)
            goto nothing;
        if (len1 == 1) {
            /* replace characters */
            Py_UCS4 u1, u2;
            Py_ssize_t pos;

            u1 = PyUnicode_READ(kind1, buf1, 0);
            pos = findchar(sbuf, skind, slen, u1, 1);
            if (pos < 0)
                goto nothing;
            u2 = PyUnicode_READ(kind2, buf2, 0);
            u = PyUnicode_New(slen, maxchar);
            if (!u)
                goto error;

            _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(u, 0, self, 0, slen);
            replace_1char_inplace(u, pos, u1, u2, maxcount);
        }
        else {
            int rkind = skind;
            char *res;
            Py_ssize_t i;

            if (kind1 < rkind) {
                /* widen substring */
                buf1 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str1, rkind);
                if (!buf1) goto error;
                release1 = 1;
            }
            i = anylib_find(rkind, self, sbuf, slen, str1, buf1, len1, 0);
            if (i < 0)
                goto nothing;
            if (rkind > kind2) {
                /* widen replacement */
                buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str2, rkind);
                if (!buf2) goto error;
                release2 = 1;
            }
            else if (rkind < kind2) {
                /* widen self and buf1 */
                rkind = kind2;
                if (release1) PyMem_Free(buf1);
                release1 = 0;
                sbuf = _PyUnicode_AsKind(self, rkind);
                if (!sbuf) goto error;
                srelease = 1;
                buf1 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str1, rkind);
                if (!buf1) goto error;
                release1 = 1;
            }
            u = PyUnicode_New(slen, maxchar);
            if (!u)
                goto error;
            assert(PyUnicode_KIND(u) == rkind);
            res = PyUnicode_DATA(u);

            memcpy(res, sbuf, rkind * slen);
            /* change everything in-place, starting with this one */
            memcpy(res + rkind * i,
                   buf2,
                   rkind * len2);
            i += len1;

            while ( --maxcount > 0) {
                i = anylib_find(rkind, self,
                                sbuf+rkind*i, slen-i,
                                str1, buf1, len1, i);
                if (i == -1)
                    break;
                memcpy(res + rkind * i,
                       buf2,
                       rkind * len2);
                i += len1;
            }
        }
    }
    else {
        Py_ssize_t n, i, j, ires;
        Py_ssize_t new_size;
        int rkind = skind;
        char *res;

        if (kind1 < rkind) {
            /* widen substring */
            buf1 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str1, rkind);
            if (!buf1) goto error;
            release1 = 1;
        }
        n = anylib_count(rkind, self, sbuf, slen, str1, buf1, len1, maxcount);
        if (n == 0)
            goto nothing;
        if (kind2 < rkind) {
            /* widen replacement */
            buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str2, rkind);
            if (!buf2) goto error;
            release2 = 1;
        }
        else if (kind2 > rkind) {
            /* widen self and buf1 */
            rkind = kind2;
            sbuf = _PyUnicode_AsKind(self, rkind);
            if (!sbuf) goto error;
            srelease = 1;
            if (release1) PyMem_Free(buf1);
            release1 = 0;
            buf1 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(str1, rkind);
            if (!buf1) goto error;
            release1 = 1;
        }
        /* new_size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) + n * (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str2) -
           PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str1))); */
        if (len1 < len2 && len2 - len1 > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - slen) / n) {
                PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                                "replace string is too long");
                goto error;
        }
        new_size = slen + n * (len2 - len1);
        if (new_size == 0) {
            _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
            if (!unicode_empty)
                goto error;
            u = unicode_empty;
            goto done;
        }
        if (new_size > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX >> (rkind-1))) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "replace string is too long");
            goto error;
        }
        u = PyUnicode_New(new_size, maxchar);
        if (!u)
            goto error;
        assert(PyUnicode_KIND(u) == rkind);
        res = PyUnicode_DATA(u);
        ires = i = 0;
        if (len1 > 0) {
            while (n-- > 0) {
                /* look for next match */
                j = anylib_find(rkind, self,
                                sbuf + rkind * i, slen-i,
                                str1, buf1, len1, i);
                if (j == -1)
                    break;
                else if (j > i) {
                    /* copy unchanged part [i:j] */
                    memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                           sbuf + rkind * i,
                           rkind * (j-i));
                    ires += j - i;
                }
                /* copy substitution string */
                if (len2 > 0) {
                    memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                           buf2,
                           rkind * len2);
                    ires += len2;
                }
                i = j + len1;
            }
            if (i < slen)
                /* copy tail [i:] */
                memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                       sbuf + rkind * i,
                       rkind * (slen-i));
        }
        else {
            /* interleave */
            while (n > 0) {
                memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                       buf2,
                       rkind * len2);
                ires += len2;
                if (--n <= 0)
                    break;
                memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                       sbuf + rkind * i,
                       rkind);
                ires++;
                i++;
            }
            memcpy(res + rkind * ires,
                   sbuf + rkind * i,
                   rkind * (slen-i));
        }
    }

    if (mayshrink) {
        unicode_adjust_maxchar(&u);
        if (u == NULL)
            goto error;
    }

  done:
    if (srelease)
        PyMem_FREE(sbuf);
    if (release1)
        PyMem_FREE(buf1);
    if (release2)
        PyMem_FREE(buf2);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(u, 1));
    return u;

  nothing:
    /* nothing to replace; return original string (when possible) */
    if (srelease)
        PyMem_FREE(sbuf);
    if (release1)
        PyMem_FREE(buf1);
    if (release2)
        PyMem_FREE(buf2);
    return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

  error:
    if (srelease && sbuf)
        PyMem_FREE(sbuf);
    if (release1 && buf1)
        PyMem_FREE(buf1);
    if (release2 && buf2)
        PyMem_FREE(buf2);
    return NULL;
}

/* --- Unicode Object Methods --------------------------------------------- */

PyDoc_STRVAR(title__doc__,
             "S.title() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a titlecased version of S, i.e. words start with title case\n\
characters, all remaining cased characters have lower case.");

static PyObject*
unicode_title(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    return case_operation(self, do_title);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(capitalize__doc__,
             "S.capitalize() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a capitalized version of S, i.e. make the first character\n\
have upper case and the rest lower case.");

static PyObject*
unicode_capitalize(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) == 0)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);
    return case_operation(self, do_capitalize);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(casefold__doc__,
             "S.casefold() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a version of S suitable for caseless comparisons.");

static PyObject *
unicode_casefold(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self))
        return ascii_upper_or_lower(self, 1);
    return case_operation(self, do_casefold);
}


/* Argument converter. Accepts a single Unicode character. */

static int
convert_uc(PyObject *obj, void *addr)
{
    Py_UCS4 *fillcharloc = (Py_UCS4 *)addr;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(obj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "The fill character must be a unicode character, "
                     "not %.100s", Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name);
        return 0;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(obj) < 0)
        return 0;
    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(obj) != 1) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The fill character must be exactly one character long");
        return 0;
    }
    *fillcharloc = PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(obj, 0);
    return 1;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(center__doc__,
             "S.center(width[, fillchar]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return S centered in a string of length width. Padding is\n\
done using the specified fill character (default is a space)");

static PyObject *
unicode_center(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    Py_ssize_t marg, left;
    Py_ssize_t width;
    Py_UCS4 fillchar = ' ';

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "n|O&:center", &width, convert_uc, &fillchar))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) >= width)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    marg = width - PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    left = marg / 2 + (marg & width & 1);

    return pad(self, left, marg - left, fillchar);
}

/* This function assumes that str1 and str2 are readied by the caller. */

static int
unicode_compare(PyObject *str1, PyObject *str2)
{
#define COMPARE(TYPE1, TYPE2) \
    do { \
        TYPE1* p1 = (TYPE1 *)data1; \
        TYPE2* p2 = (TYPE2 *)data2; \
        TYPE1* end = p1 + len; \
        Py_UCS4 c1, c2; \
        for (; p1 != end; p1++, p2++) { \
            c1 = *p1; \
            c2 = *p2; \
            if (c1 != c2) \
                return (c1 < c2) ? -1 : 1; \
        } \
    } \
    while (0)

    int kind1, kind2;
    void *data1, *data2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2, len;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str1);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(str2);
    data1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str1);
    data2 = PyUnicode_DATA(str2);
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str1);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str2);
    len = Py_MIN(len1, len2);

    switch(kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
    {
        switch(kind2) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        {
            int cmp = memcmp(data1, data2, len);
            /* normalize result of memcmp() into the range [-1; 1] */
            if (cmp < 0)
                return -1;
            if (cmp > 0)
                return 1;
            break;
        }
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS1, Py_UCS4);
            break;
        default:
            assert(0);
        }
        break;
    }
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
    {
        switch(kind2) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS2, Py_UCS1);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        {
            COMPARE(Py_UCS2, Py_UCS2);
            break;
        }
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4);
            break;
        default:
            assert(0);
        }
        break;
    }
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
    {
        switch(kind2) {
        case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS1);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
            COMPARE(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS2);
            break;
        case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        {
#if defined(HAVE_WMEMCMP) && SIZEOF_WCHAR_T == 4
            int cmp = wmemcmp((wchar_t *)data1, (wchar_t *)data2, len);
            /* normalize result of wmemcmp() into the range [-1; 1] */
            if (cmp < 0)
                return -1;
            if (cmp > 0)
                return 1;
#else
            COMPARE(Py_UCS4, Py_UCS4);
#endif
            break;
        }
        default:
            assert(0);
        }
        break;
    }
    default:
        assert(0);
    }

    if (len1 == len2)
        return 0;
    if (len1 < len2)
        return -1;
    else
        return 1;

#undef COMPARE
}

static int
unicode_compare_eq(PyObject *str1, PyObject *str2)
{
    int kind;
    void *data1, *data2;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    int cmp;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str1);
    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str2) != len)
        return 0;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str1);
    if (PyUnicode_KIND(str2) != kind)
        return 0;
    data1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str1);
    data2 = PyUnicode_DATA(str2);

    cmp = memcmp(data1, data2, len * kind);
    return (cmp == 0);
}


int
PyUnicode_Compare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
{
    if (PyUnicode_Check(left) && PyUnicode_Check(right)) {
        if (PyUnicode_READY(left) == -1 ||
            PyUnicode_READY(right) == -1)
            return -1;

        /* a string is equal to itself */
        if (left == right)
            return 0;

        return unicode_compare(left, right);
    }
    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                 "Can't compare %.100s and %.100s",
                 left->ob_type->tp_name,
                 right->ob_type->tp_name);
    return -1;
}

int
_PyUnicode_CompareWithId(PyObject *left, _Py_Identifier *right)
{
    PyObject *right_str = _PyUnicode_FromId(right);   /* borrowed */
    if (right_str == NULL)
        return -1;
    return PyUnicode_Compare(left, right_str);
}

int
PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(PyObject* uni, const char* str)
{
    Py_ssize_t i;
    int kind;
    Py_UCS4 chr;

    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(uni));
    if (PyUnicode_READY(uni) == -1)
        return -1;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(uni);
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        const void *data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(uni);
        size_t len1 = (size_t)PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(uni);
        size_t len, len2 = strlen(str);
        int cmp;

        len = Py_MIN(len1, len2);
        cmp = memcmp(data, str, len);
        if (cmp != 0) {
            if (cmp < 0)
                return -1;
            else
                return 1;
        }
        if (len1 > len2)
            return 1; /* uni is longer */
        if (len1 < len2)
            return -1; /* str is longer */
        return 0;
    }
    else {
        void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(uni);
        /* Compare Unicode string and source character set string */
        for (i = 0; (chr = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)) && str[i]; i++)
            if (chr != (unsigned char)str[i])
                return (chr < (unsigned char)(str[i])) ? -1 : 1;
        /* This check keeps Python strings that end in '\0' from comparing equal
         to C strings identical up to that point. */
        if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(uni) != i || chr)
            return 1; /* uni is longer */
        if (str[i])
            return -1; /* str is longer */
        return 0;
    }
}


#define TEST_COND(cond)                         \
    ((cond) ? Py_True : Py_False)

PyObject *
PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op)
{
    int result;
    PyObject *v;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(left) || !PyUnicode_Check(right))
        Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(left) == -1 ||
        PyUnicode_READY(right) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (left == right) {
        switch (op) {
        case Py_EQ:
        case Py_LE:
        case Py_GE:
            /* a string is equal to itself */
            v = Py_True;
            break;
        case Py_NE:
        case Py_LT:
        case Py_GT:
            v = Py_False;
            break;
        default:
            PyErr_BadArgument();
            return NULL;
        }
    }
    else if (op == Py_EQ || op == Py_NE) {
        result = unicode_compare_eq(left, right);
        result ^= (op == Py_NE);
        v = TEST_COND(result);
    }
    else {
        result = unicode_compare(left, right);

        /* Convert the return value to a Boolean */
        switch (op) {
        case Py_LE:
            v = TEST_COND(result <= 0);
            break;
        case Py_GE:
            v = TEST_COND(result >= 0);
            break;
        case Py_LT:
            v = TEST_COND(result == -1);
            break;
        case Py_GT:
            v = TEST_COND(result == 1);
            break;
        default:
            PyErr_BadArgument();
            return NULL;
        }
    }
    Py_INCREF(v);
    return v;
}

int
_PyUnicode_EQ(PyObject *aa, PyObject *bb)
{
    return unicode_eq(aa, bb);
}

int
PyUnicode_Contains(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr)
{
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;
    int result;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(substr)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "'in <string>' requires string as left operand, not %.100s",
                     Py_TYPE(substr)->tp_name);
        return -1;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(substr) == -1)
        return -1;
    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0)
        return -1;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(substr);
    if (kind1 < kind2)
        return 0;
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substr);
    if (len1 < len2)
        return 0;
    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(substr);
    if (len2 == 1) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind2, buf2, 0);
        result = findchar((const char *)buf1, kind1, len1, ch, 1) != -1;
        return result;
    }
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(substr, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return -1;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        result = ucs1lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, 0) != -1;
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        result = ucs2lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, 0) != -1;
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        result = ucs4lib_find(buf1, len1, buf2, len2, 0) != -1;
        break;
    default:
        result = -1;
        assert(0);
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return result;
}

/* Concat to string or Unicode object giving a new Unicode object. */

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Concat(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
{
    PyObject *result;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar, maxchar2;
    Py_ssize_t left_len, right_len, new_len;

    if (ensure_unicode(left) < 0 || ensure_unicode(right) < 0)
        return NULL;

    /* Shortcuts */
    if (left == unicode_empty)
        return PyUnicode_FromObject(right);
    if (right == unicode_empty)
        return PyUnicode_FromObject(left);

    left_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(left);
    right_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(right);
    if (left_len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - right_len) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                        "strings are too large to concat");
        return NULL;
    }
    new_len = left_len + right_len;

    maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(left);
    maxchar2 = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(right);
    maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, maxchar2);

    /* Concat the two Unicode strings */
    result = PyUnicode_New(new_len, maxchar);
    if (result == NULL)
        return NULL;
    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(result, 0, left, 0, left_len);
    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(result, left_len, right, 0, right_len);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(result, 1));
    return result;
}

void
PyUnicode_Append(PyObject **p_left, PyObject *right)
{
    PyObject *left, *res;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar, maxchar2;
    Py_ssize_t left_len, right_len, new_len;

    if (p_left == NULL) {
        if (!PyErr_Occurred())
            PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return;
    }
    left = *p_left;
    if (right == NULL || left == NULL
        || !PyUnicode_Check(left) || !PyUnicode_Check(right)) {
        if (!PyErr_Occurred())
            PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        goto error;
    }

    if (PyUnicode_READY(left) == -1)
        goto error;
    if (PyUnicode_READY(right) == -1)
        goto error;

    /* Shortcuts */
    if (left == unicode_empty) {
        Py_DECREF(left);
        Py_INCREF(right);
        *p_left = right;
        return;
    }
    if (right == unicode_empty)
        return;

    left_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(left);
    right_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(right);
    if (left_len > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - right_len) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                        "strings are too large to concat");
        goto error;
    }
    new_len = left_len + right_len;

    if (unicode_modifiable(left)
        && PyUnicode_CheckExact(right)
        && PyUnicode_KIND(right) <= PyUnicode_KIND(left)
        /* Don't resize for ascii += latin1. Convert ascii to latin1 requires
           to change the structure size, but characters are stored just after
           the structure, and so it requires to move all characters which is
           not so different than duplicating the string. */
        && !(PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(left) && !PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(right)))
    {
        /* append inplace */
        if (unicode_resize(p_left, new_len) != 0)
            goto error;

        /* copy 'right' into the newly allocated area of 'left' */
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(*p_left, left_len, right, 0, right_len);
    }
    else {
        maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(left);
        maxchar2 = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(right);
        maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, maxchar2);

        /* Concat the two Unicode strings */
        res = PyUnicode_New(new_len, maxchar);
        if (res == NULL)
            goto error;
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(res, 0, left, 0, left_len);
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(res, left_len, right, 0, right_len);
        Py_DECREF(left);
        *p_left = res;
    }
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(*p_left, 1));
    return;

error:
    Py_CLEAR(*p_left);
}

void
PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(PyObject **pleft, PyObject *right)
{
    PyUnicode_Append(pleft, right);
    Py_XDECREF(right);
}

/*
Wraps stringlib_parse_args_finds() and additionally ensures that the
first argument is a unicode object.
*/

static inline int
parse_args_finds_unicode(const char * function_name, PyObject *args,
                         PyObject **substring,
                         Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *end)
{
    if(stringlib_parse_args_finds(function_name, args, substring,
                                  start, end)) {
        if (ensure_unicode(*substring) < 0)
            return 0;
        return 1;
    }
    return 0;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(count__doc__,
             "S.count(sub[, start[, end]]) -> int\n\
\n\
Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in\n\
string S[start:end].  Optional arguments start and end are\n\
interpreted as in slice notation.");

static PyObject *
unicode_count(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *substring = NULL;   /* initialize to fix a compiler warning */
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;
    PyObject *result;
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2, iresult;

    if (!parse_args_finds_unicode("count", args, &substring, &start, &end))
        return NULL;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(substring);
    if (kind1 < kind2)
        return PyLong_FromLong(0);

    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(substring);
    ADJUST_INDICES(start, end, len1);
    if (end - start < len2)
        return PyLong_FromLong(0);

    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(substring);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(substring, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return NULL;
    }
    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        iresult = ucs1lib_count(
            ((Py_UCS1*)buf1) + start, end - start,
            buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
            );
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        iresult = ucs2lib_count(
            ((Py_UCS2*)buf1) + start, end - start,
            buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
            );
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        iresult = ucs4lib_count(
            ((Py_UCS4*)buf1) + start, end - start,
            buf2, len2, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
            );
        break;
    default:
        assert(0); iresult = 0;
    }

    result = PyLong_FromSsize_t(iresult);

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return result;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(encode__doc__,
             "S.encode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict') -> bytes\n\
\n\
Encode S using the codec registered for encoding. Default encoding\n\
is 'utf-8'. errors may be given to set a different error\n\
handling scheme. Default is 'strict' meaning that encoding errors raise\n\
a UnicodeEncodeError. Other possible values are 'ignore', 'replace' and\n\
'xmlcharrefreplace' as well as any other name registered with\n\
codecs.register_error that can handle UnicodeEncodeErrors.");

static PyObject *
unicode_encode(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
{
    static char *kwlist[] = {"encoding", "errors", 0};
    char *encoding = NULL;
    char *errors = NULL;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwargs, "|ss:encode",
                                     kwlist, &encoding, &errors))
        return NULL;
    return PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(self, encoding, errors);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(expandtabs__doc__,
             "S.expandtabs(tabsize=8) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of S where all tab characters are expanded using spaces.\n\
If tabsize is not given, a tab size of 8 characters is assumed.");

static PyObject*
unicode_expandtabs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, j, line_pos, src_len, incr;
    Py_UCS4 ch;
    PyObject *u;
    void *src_data, *dest_data;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"tabsize", 0};
    int tabsize = 8;
    int kind;
    int found;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|i:expandtabs",
                                     kwlist, &tabsize))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    /* First pass: determine size of output string */
    src_len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    i = j = line_pos = 0;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    src_data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    found = 0;
    for (; i < src_len; i++) {
        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, src_data, i);
        if (ch == '\t') {
            found = 1;
            if (tabsize > 0) {
                incr = tabsize - (line_pos % tabsize); /* cannot overflow */
                if (j > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - incr)
                    goto overflow;
                line_pos += incr;
                j += incr;
            }
        }
        else {
            if (j > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - 1)
                goto overflow;
            line_pos++;
            j++;
            if (ch == '\n' || ch == '\r')
                line_pos = 0;
        }
    }
    if (!found)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    /* Second pass: create output string and fill it */
    u = PyUnicode_New(j, PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(self));
    if (!u)
        return NULL;
    dest_data = PyUnicode_DATA(u);

    i = j = line_pos = 0;

    for (; i < src_len; i++) {
        ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, src_data, i);
        if (ch == '\t') {
            if (tabsize > 0) {
                incr = tabsize - (line_pos % tabsize);
                line_pos += incr;
                FILL(kind, dest_data, ' ', j, incr);
                j += incr;
            }
        }
        else {
            line_pos++;
            PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, dest_data, j, ch);
            j++;
            if (ch == '\n' || ch == '\r')
                line_pos = 0;
        }
    }
    assert (j == PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(u));
    return unicode_result(u);

  overflow:
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError, "new string is too long");
    return NULL;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(find__doc__,
             "S.find(sub[, start[, end]]) -> int\n\
\n\
Return the lowest index in S where substring sub is found,\n\
such that sub is contained within S[start:end].  Optional\n\
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.\n\
\n\
Return -1 on failure.");

static PyObject *
unicode_find(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    /* initialize variables to prevent gcc warning */
    PyObject *substring = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = 0;
    Py_ssize_t result;

    if (!parse_args_finds_unicode("find", args, &substring, &start, &end))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    result = any_find_slice(self, substring, start, end, 1);

    if (result == -2)
        return NULL;

    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(result);
}

static PyObject *
unicode_getitem(PyObject *self, Py_ssize_t index)
{
    void *data;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    Py_UCS4 ch;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(self) || PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (index < 0 || index >= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return NULL;
    }
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, index);
    return unicode_char(ch);
}

/* Believe it or not, this produces the same value for ASCII strings
   as bytes_hash(). */
static Py_hash_t
unicode_hash(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t len;
    Py_uhash_t x;  /* Unsigned for defined overflow behavior. */

#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    assert(_Py_HashSecret_Initialized);
#endif
    if (_PyUnicode_HASH(self) != -1)
        return _PyUnicode_HASH(self);
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return -1;
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    /*
      We make the hash of the empty string be 0, rather than using
      (prefix ^ suffix), since this slightly obfuscates the hash secret
    */
    if (len == 0) {
        _PyUnicode_HASH(self) = 0;
        return 0;
    }
    x = _Py_HashBytes(PyUnicode_DATA(self),
                      PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) * PyUnicode_KIND(self));
    _PyUnicode_HASH(self) = x;
    return x;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(index__doc__,
             "S.index(sub[, start[, end]]) -> int\n\
\n\
Like S.find() but raise ValueError when the substring is not found.");

static PyObject *
unicode_index(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    /* initialize variables to prevent gcc warning */
    Py_ssize_t result;
    PyObject *substring = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = 0;

    if (!parse_args_finds_unicode("index", args, &substring, &start, &end))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    result = any_find_slice(self, substring, start, end, 1);

    if (result == -2)
        return NULL;

    if (result < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "substring not found");
        return NULL;
    }

    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(result);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(islower__doc__,
             "S.islower() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all cased characters in S are lowercase and there is\n\
at least one cased character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_islower(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    int cased;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    cased = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        if (Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(ch) || Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(ch))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
        else if (!cased && Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(ch))
            cased = 1;
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(cased);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isupper__doc__,
             "S.isupper() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all cased characters in S are uppercase and there is\n\
at least one cased character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isupper(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    int cased;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)) != 0);

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    cased = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        if (Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(ch) || Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(ch))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
        else if (!cased && Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(ch))
            cased = 1;
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(cased);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(istitle__doc__,
             "S.istitle() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if S is a titlecased string and there is at least one\n\
character in S, i.e. upper- and titlecase characters may only\n\
follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones.\n\
Return False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_istitle(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    int cased, previous_is_cased;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
        return PyBool_FromLong((Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(ch) != 0) ||
                               (Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(ch) != 0));
    }

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    cased = 0;
    previous_is_cased = 0;
    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);

        if (Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(ch) || Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(ch)) {
            if (previous_is_cased)
                return PyBool_FromLong(0);
            previous_is_cased = 1;
            cased = 1;
        }
        else if (Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(ch)) {
            if (!previous_is_cased)
                return PyBool_FromLong(0);
            previous_is_cased = 1;
            cased = 1;
        }
        else
            previous_is_cased = 0;
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(cased);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isspace__doc__,
             "S.isspace() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all characters in S are whitespace\n\
and there is at least one character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isspace(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(ch))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isalpha__doc__,
             "S.isalpha() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all characters in S are alphabetic\n\
and there is at least one character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isalpha(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isalnum__doc__,
             "S.isalnum() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all characters in S are alphanumeric\n\
and there is at least one character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isalnum(PyObject *self)
{
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t len, i;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (len == 1) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
        return PyBool_FromLong(Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM(ch));
    }

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (len == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < len; i++) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM(ch))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isdecimal__doc__,
             "S.isdecimal() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if there are only decimal characters in S,\n\
False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isdecimal(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isdigit__doc__,
             "S.isdigit() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all characters in S are digits\n\
and there is at least one character in S, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isdigit(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1) {
        const Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
        return PyBool_FromLong(Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT(ch));
    }

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isnumeric__doc__,
             "S.isnumeric() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if there are only numeric characters in S,\n\
False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isnumeric(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (length == 0)
        return PyBool_FromLong(0);

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)))
            return PyBool_FromLong(0);
    }
    return PyBool_FromLong(1);
}

int
PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(PyObject *self)
{
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    Py_UCS4 first;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1) {
        Py_FatalError("identifier not ready");
        return 0;
    }

    /* Special case for empty strings */
    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) == 0)
        return 0;
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* PEP 3131 says that the first character must be in
       XID_Start and subsequent characters in XID_Continue,
       and for the ASCII range, the 2.x rules apply (i.e
       start with letters and underscore, continue with
       letters, digits, underscore). However, given the current
       definition of XID_Start and XID_Continue, it is sufficient
       to check just for these, except that _ must be allowed
       as starting an identifier.  */
    first = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0);
    if (!_PyUnicode_IsXidStart(first) && first != 0x5F /* LOW LINE */)
        return 0;

    for (i = 1; i < PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self); i++)
        if (!_PyUnicode_IsXidContinue(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i)))
            return 0;
    return 1;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isidentifier__doc__,
             "S.isidentifier() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if S is a valid identifier according\n\
to the language definition.\n\
\n\
Use keyword.iskeyword() to test for reserved identifiers\n\
such as \"def\" and \"class\".\n");

static PyObject*
unicode_isidentifier(PyObject *self)
{
    return PyBool_FromLong(PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(self));
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(isprintable__doc__,
             "S.isprintable() -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if all characters in S are considered\n\
printable in repr() or S is empty, False otherwise.");

static PyObject*
unicode_isprintable(PyObject *self)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, length;
    int kind;
    void *data;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

    /* Shortcut for single character strings */
    if (length == 1)
        return PyBool_FromLong(
            Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0)));

    for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
        if (!Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i))) {
            Py_RETURN_FALSE;
        }
    }
    Py_RETURN_TRUE;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(join__doc__,
             "S.join(iterable) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in the\n\
iterable.  The separator between elements is S.");

static PyObject*
unicode_join(PyObject *self, PyObject *data)
{
    return PyUnicode_Join(self, data);
}

static Py_ssize_t
unicode_length(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return -1;
    return PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(ljust__doc__,
             "S.ljust(width[, fillchar]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return S left-justified in a Unicode string of length width. Padding is\n\
done using the specified fill character (default is a space).");

static PyObject *
unicode_ljust(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    Py_ssize_t width;
    Py_UCS4 fillchar = ' ';

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "n|O&:ljust", &width, convert_uc, &fillchar))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) >= width)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    return pad(self, 0, width - PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), fillchar);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(lower__doc__,
             "S.lower() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of the string S converted to lowercase.");

static PyObject*
unicode_lower(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self))
        return ascii_upper_or_lower(self, 1);
    return case_operation(self, do_lower);
}

#define LEFTSTRIP 0
#define RIGHTSTRIP 1
#define BOTHSTRIP 2

/* Arrays indexed by above */
static const char * const stripformat[] = {"|O:lstrip", "|O:rstrip", "|O:strip"};

#define STRIPNAME(i) (stripformat[i]+3)

/* externally visible for str.strip(unicode) */
PyObject *
_PyUnicode_XStrip(PyObject *self, int striptype, PyObject *sepobj)
{
    void *data;
    int kind;
    Py_ssize_t i, j, len;
    BLOOM_MASK sepmask;
    Py_ssize_t seplen;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1 || PyUnicode_READY(sepobj) == -1)
        return NULL;

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    seplen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(sepobj);
    sepmask = make_bloom_mask(PyUnicode_KIND(sepobj),
                              PyUnicode_DATA(sepobj),
                              seplen);

    i = 0;
    if (striptype != RIGHTSTRIP) {
        while (i < len) {
            Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
            if (!BLOOM(sepmask, ch))
                break;
            if (PyUnicode_FindChar(sepobj, ch, 0, seplen, 1) < 0)
                break;
            i++;
        }
    }

    j = len;
    if (striptype != LEFTSTRIP) {
        j--;
        while (j >= i) {
            Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, j);
            if (!BLOOM(sepmask, ch))
                break;
            if (PyUnicode_FindChar(sepobj, ch, 0, seplen, 1) < 0)
                break;
            j--;
        }

        j++;
    }

    return PyUnicode_Substring(self, i, j);
}

PyObject*
PyUnicode_Substring(PyObject *self, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
{
    unsigned char *data;
    int kind;
    Py_ssize_t length;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
    end = Py_MIN(end, length);

    if (start == 0 && end == length)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    if (start < 0 || end < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_IndexError, "string index out of range");
        return NULL;
    }
    if (start >= length || end < start)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();

    length = end - start;
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self)) {
        data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self);
        return _PyUnicode_FromASCII((char*)(data + start), length);
    }
    else {
        kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
        data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self);
        return PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(kind,
                                         data + kind * start,
                                         length);
    }
}

static PyObject *
do_strip(PyObject *self, int striptype)
{
    Py_ssize_t len, i, j;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);

    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self)) {
        Py_UCS1 *data = PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(self);

        i = 0;
        if (striptype != RIGHTSTRIP) {
            while (i < len) {
                Py_UCS1 ch = data[i];
                if (!_Py_ascii_whitespace[ch])
                    break;
                i++;
            }
        }

        j = len;
        if (striptype != LEFTSTRIP) {
            j--;
            while (j >= i) {
                Py_UCS1 ch = data[j];
                if (!_Py_ascii_whitespace[ch])
                    break;
                j--;
            }
            j++;
        }
    }
    else {
        int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
        void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);

        i = 0;
        if (striptype != RIGHTSTRIP) {
            while (i < len) {
                Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, i);
                if (!Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(ch))
                    break;
                i++;
            }
        }

        j = len;
        if (striptype != LEFTSTRIP) {
            j--;
            while (j >= i) {
                Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, j);
                if (!Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(ch))
                    break;
                j--;
            }
            j++;
        }
    }

    return PyUnicode_Substring(self, i, j);
}


static PyObject *
do_argstrip(PyObject *self, int striptype, PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *sep = NULL;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, stripformat[striptype], &sep))
        return NULL;

    if (sep != NULL && sep != Py_None) {
        if (PyUnicode_Check(sep))
            return _PyUnicode_XStrip(self, striptype, sep);
        else {
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                         "%s arg must be None or str",
                         STRIPNAME(striptype));
            return NULL;
        }
    }

    return do_strip(self, striptype);
}


PyDoc_STRVAR(strip__doc__,
             "S.strip([chars]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of the string S with leading and trailing\n\
whitespace removed.\n\
If chars is given and not None, remove characters in chars instead.");

static PyObject *
unicode_strip(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    if (PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args) == 0)
        return do_strip(self, BOTHSTRIP); /* Common case */
    else
        return do_argstrip(self, BOTHSTRIP, args);
}


PyDoc_STRVAR(lstrip__doc__,
             "S.lstrip([chars]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of the string S with leading whitespace removed.\n\
If chars is given and not None, remove characters in chars instead.");

static PyObject *
unicode_lstrip(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    if (PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args) == 0)
        return do_strip(self, LEFTSTRIP); /* Common case */
    else
        return do_argstrip(self, LEFTSTRIP, args);
}


PyDoc_STRVAR(rstrip__doc__,
             "S.rstrip([chars]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of the string S with trailing whitespace removed.\n\
If chars is given and not None, remove characters in chars instead.");

static PyObject *
unicode_rstrip(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    if (PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args) == 0)
        return do_strip(self, RIGHTSTRIP); /* Common case */
    else
        return do_argstrip(self, RIGHTSTRIP, args);
}


static PyObject*
unicode_repeat(PyObject *str, Py_ssize_t len)
{
    PyObject *u;
    Py_ssize_t nchars, n;

    if (len < 1)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();

    /* no repeat, return original string */
    if (len == 1)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(str);

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / len) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                        "repeated string is too long");
        return NULL;
    }
    nchars = len * PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);

    u = PyUnicode_New(nchars, PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str));
    if (!u)
        return NULL;
    assert(PyUnicode_KIND(u) == PyUnicode_KIND(str));

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) == 1) {
        const int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
        const Py_UCS4 fill_char = PyUnicode_READ(kind, PyUnicode_DATA(str), 0);
        if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
            void *to = PyUnicode_DATA(u);
            memset(to, (unsigned char)fill_char, len);
        }
        else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
            Py_UCS2 *ucs2 = PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(u);
            for (n = 0; n < len; ++n)
                ucs2[n] = fill_char;
        } else {
            Py_UCS4 *ucs4 = PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(u);
            assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
            for (n = 0; n < len; ++n)
                ucs4[n] = fill_char;
        }
    }
    else {
        /* number of characters copied this far */
        Py_ssize_t done = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
        const Py_ssize_t char_size = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
        char *to = (char *) PyUnicode_DATA(u);
        Py_MEMCPY(to, PyUnicode_DATA(str),
                  PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * char_size);
        while (done < nchars) {
            n = (done <= nchars-done) ? done : nchars-done;
            Py_MEMCPY(to + (done * char_size), to, n * char_size);
            done += n;
        }
    }

    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(u, 1));
    return u;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *str,
                  PyObject *substr,
                  PyObject *replstr,
                  Py_ssize_t maxcount)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(str) < 0 || ensure_unicode(substr) < 0 ||
            ensure_unicode(replstr) < 0)
        return NULL;
    return replace(str, substr, replstr, maxcount);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(replace__doc__,
             "S.replace(old, new[, count]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of S with all occurrences of substring\n\
old replaced by new.  If the optional argument count is\n\
given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.");

static PyObject*
unicode_replace(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *str1;
    PyObject *str2;
    Py_ssize_t maxcount = -1;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "UU|n:replace", &str1, &str2, &maxcount))
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    return replace(self, str1, str2, maxcount);
}

static PyObject *
unicode_repr(PyObject *unicode)
{
    PyObject *repr;
    Py_ssize_t isize;
    Py_ssize_t osize, squote, dquote, i, o;
    Py_UCS4 max, quote;
    int ikind, okind, unchanged;
    void *idata, *odata;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1)
        return NULL;

    isize = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);
    idata = PyUnicode_DATA(unicode);

    /* Compute length of output, quote characters, and
       maximum character */
    osize = 0;
    max = 127;
    squote = dquote = 0;
    ikind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    for (i = 0; i < isize; i++) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(ikind, idata, i);
        Py_ssize_t incr = 1;
        switch (ch) {
        case '\'': squote++; break;
        case '"':  dquote++; break;
        case '\\': case '\t': case '\r': case '\n':
            incr = 2;
            break;
        default:
            /* Fast-path ASCII */
            if (ch < ' ' || ch == 0x7f)
                incr = 4; /* \xHH */
            else if (ch < 0x7f)
                ;
            else if (Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(ch))
                max = ch > max ? ch : max;
            else if (ch < 0x100)
                incr = 4; /* \xHH */
            else if (ch < 0x10000)
                incr = 6; /* \uHHHH */
            else
                incr = 10; /* \uHHHHHHHH */
        }
        if (osize > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - incr) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "string is too long to generate repr");
            return NULL;
        }
        osize += incr;
    }

    quote = '\'';
    unchanged = (osize == isize);
    if (squote) {
        unchanged = 0;
        if (dquote)
            /* Both squote and dquote present. Use squote,
               and escape them */
            osize += squote;
        else
            quote = '"';
    }
    osize += 2;   /* quotes */

    repr = PyUnicode_New(osize, max);
    if (repr == NULL)
        return NULL;
    okind = PyUnicode_KIND(repr);
    odata = PyUnicode_DATA(repr);

    PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, 0, quote);
    PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, osize-1, quote);
    if (unchanged) {
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(repr, 1,
                                      unicode, 0,
                                      isize);
    }
    else {
        for (i = 0, o = 1; i < isize; i++) {
            Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(ikind, idata, i);

            /* Escape quotes and backslashes */
            if ((ch == quote) || (ch == '\\')) {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, ch);
                continue;
            }

            /* Map special whitespace to '\t', \n', '\r' */
            if (ch == '\t') {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 't');
            }
            else if (ch == '\n') {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'n');
            }
            else if (ch == '\r') {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'r');
            }

            /* Map non-printable US ASCII to '\xhh' */
            else if (ch < ' ' || ch == 0x7F) {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'x');
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0x000F]);
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[ch & 0x000F]);
            }

            /* Copy ASCII characters as-is */
            else if (ch < 0x7F) {
                PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, ch);
            }

            /* Non-ASCII characters */
            else {
                /* Map Unicode whitespace and control characters
                   (categories Z* and C* except ASCII space)
                */
                if (!Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(ch)) {
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, '\\');
                    /* Map 8-bit characters to '\xhh' */
                    if (ch <= 0xff) {
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'x');
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0x000F]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[ch & 0x000F]);
                    }
                    /* Map 16-bit characters to '\uxxxx' */
                    else if (ch <= 0xffff) {
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'u');
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[ch & 0xF]);
                    }
                    /* Map 21-bit characters to '\U00xxxxxx' */
                    else {
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, 'U');
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 28) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 24) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 20) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 16) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 12) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 8) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[(ch >> 4) & 0xF]);
                        PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, Py_hexdigits[ch & 0xF]);
                    }
                }
                /* Copy characters as-is */
                else {
                    PyUnicode_WRITE(okind, odata, o++, ch);
                }
            }
        }
    }
    /* Closing quote already added at the beginning */
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(repr, 1));
    return repr;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(rfind__doc__,
             "S.rfind(sub[, start[, end]]) -> int\n\
\n\
Return the highest index in S where substring sub is found,\n\
such that sub is contained within S[start:end].  Optional\n\
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.\n\
\n\
Return -1 on failure.");

static PyObject *
unicode_rfind(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    /* initialize variables to prevent gcc warning */
    PyObject *substring = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = 0;
    Py_ssize_t result;

    if (!parse_args_finds_unicode("rfind", args, &substring, &start, &end))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    result = any_find_slice(self, substring, start, end, -1);

    if (result == -2)
        return NULL;

    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(result);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(rindex__doc__,
             "S.rindex(sub[, start[, end]]) -> int\n\
\n\
Like S.rfind() but raise ValueError when the substring is not found.");

static PyObject *
unicode_rindex(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    /* initialize variables to prevent gcc warning */
    PyObject *substring = NULL;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = 0;
    Py_ssize_t result;

    if (!parse_args_finds_unicode("rindex", args, &substring, &start, &end))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    result = any_find_slice(self, substring, start, end, -1);

    if (result == -2)
        return NULL;

    if (result < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "substring not found");
        return NULL;
    }

    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(result);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(rjust__doc__,
             "S.rjust(width[, fillchar]) -> str\n\
\n\
Return S right-justified in a string of length width. Padding is\n\
done using the specified fill character (default is a space).");

static PyObject *
unicode_rjust(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    Py_ssize_t width;
    Py_UCS4 fillchar = ' ';

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "n|O&:rjust", &width, convert_uc, &fillchar))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) >= width)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    return pad(self, width - PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self), 0, fillchar);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Split(PyObject *s, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(s) < 0 || (sep != NULL && ensure_unicode(sep) < 0))
        return NULL;

    return split(s, sep, maxsplit);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(split__doc__,
             "S.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1) -> list of strings\n\
\n\
Return a list of the words in S, using sep as the\n\
delimiter string.  If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit\n\
splits are done. If sep is not specified or is None, any\n\
whitespace string is a separator and empty strings are\n\
removed from the result.");

static PyObject*
unicode_split(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    static char *kwlist[] = {"sep", "maxsplit", 0};
    PyObject *substring = Py_None;
    Py_ssize_t maxcount = -1;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|On:split",
                                     kwlist, &substring, &maxcount))
        return NULL;

    if (substring == Py_None)
        return split(self, NULL, maxcount);

    if (PyUnicode_Check(substring))
        return split(self, substring, maxcount);

    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                 "must be str or None, not %.100s",
                 Py_TYPE(substring)->tp_name);
    return NULL;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Partition(PyObject *str_obj, PyObject *sep_obj)
{
    PyObject* out;
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;

    if (ensure_unicode(str_obj) < 0 || ensure_unicode(sep_obj) < 0)
        return NULL;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str_obj);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(sep_obj);
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str_obj);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(sep_obj);
    if (kind1 < kind2 || len1 < len2) {
        _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        if (!unicode_empty)
            out = NULL;
        else {
            out = PyTuple_Pack(3, str_obj, unicode_empty, unicode_empty);
            Py_DECREF(unicode_empty);
        }
        return out;
    }
    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str_obj);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(sep_obj);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(sep_obj, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return NULL;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str_obj) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(sep_obj))
            out = asciilib_partition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        else
            out = ucs1lib_partition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs2lib_partition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs4lib_partition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
        out = 0;
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return out;
}


PyObject *
PyUnicode_RPartition(PyObject *str_obj, PyObject *sep_obj)
{
    PyObject* out;
    int kind1, kind2;
    void *buf1, *buf2;
    Py_ssize_t len1, len2;

    if (ensure_unicode(str_obj) < 0 || ensure_unicode(sep_obj) < 0)
        return NULL;

    kind1 = PyUnicode_KIND(str_obj);
    kind2 = PyUnicode_KIND(sep_obj);
    len1 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str_obj);
    len2 = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(sep_obj);
    if (kind1 < kind2 || len1 < len2) {
        _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        if (!unicode_empty)
            out = NULL;
        else {
            out = PyTuple_Pack(3, unicode_empty, unicode_empty, str_obj);
            Py_DECREF(unicode_empty);
        }
        return out;
    }
    buf1 = PyUnicode_DATA(str_obj);
    buf2 = PyUnicode_DATA(sep_obj);
    if (kind2 != kind1) {
        buf2 = _PyUnicode_AsKind(sep_obj, kind1);
        if (!buf2)
            return NULL;
    }

    switch (kind1) {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
        if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(str_obj) && PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(sep_obj))
            out = asciilib_rpartition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        else
            out = ucs1lib_rpartition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs2lib_rpartition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
        out = ucs4lib_rpartition(str_obj, buf1, len1, sep_obj, buf2, len2);
        break;
    default:
        assert(0);
        out = 0;
    }

    if (kind2 != kind1)
        PyMem_Free(buf2);

    return out;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(partition__doc__,
             "S.partition(sep) -> (head, sep, tail)\n\
\n\
Search for the separator sep in S, and return the part before it,\n\
the separator itself, and the part after it.  If the separator is not\n\
found, return S and two empty strings.");

static PyObject*
unicode_partition(PyObject *self, PyObject *separator)
{
    return PyUnicode_Partition(self, separator);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(rpartition__doc__,
             "S.rpartition(sep) -> (head, sep, tail)\n\
\n\
Search for the separator sep in S, starting at the end of S, and return\n\
the part before it, the separator itself, and the part after it.  If the\n\
separator is not found, return two empty strings and S.");

static PyObject*
unicode_rpartition(PyObject *self, PyObject *separator)
{
    return PyUnicode_RPartition(self, separator);
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_RSplit(PyObject *s, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
{
    if (ensure_unicode(s) < 0 || (sep != NULL && ensure_unicode(sep) < 0))
        return NULL;

    return rsplit(s, sep, maxsplit);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(rsplit__doc__,
             "S.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1) -> list of strings\n\
\n\
Return a list of the words in S, using sep as the\n\
delimiter string, starting at the end of the string and\n\
working to the front.  If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit\n\
splits are done. If sep is not specified, any whitespace string\n\
is a separator.");

static PyObject*
unicode_rsplit(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    static char *kwlist[] = {"sep", "maxsplit", 0};
    PyObject *substring = Py_None;
    Py_ssize_t maxcount = -1;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|On:rsplit",
                                     kwlist, &substring, &maxcount))
        return NULL;

    if (substring == Py_None)
        return rsplit(self, NULL, maxcount);

    if (PyUnicode_Check(substring))
        return rsplit(self, substring, maxcount);

    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                 "must be str or None, not %.100s",
                 Py_TYPE(substring)->tp_name);
    return NULL;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(splitlines__doc__,
             "S.splitlines([keepends]) -> list of strings\n\
\n\
Return a list of the lines in S, breaking at line boundaries.\n\
Line breaks are not included in the resulting list unless keepends\n\
is given and true.");

static PyObject*
unicode_splitlines(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    static char *kwlist[] = {"keepends", 0};
    int keepends = 0;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|i:splitlines",
                                     kwlist, &keepends))
        return NULL;

    return PyUnicode_Splitlines(self, keepends);
}

static
PyObject *unicode_str(PyObject *self)
{
    return unicode_result_unchanged(self);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(swapcase__doc__,
             "S.swapcase() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of S with uppercase characters converted to lowercase\n\
and vice versa.");

static PyObject*
unicode_swapcase(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    return case_operation(self, do_swapcase);
}

/*[clinic input]

@staticmethod
str.maketrans as unicode_maketrans

  x: object

  y: unicode=NULL

  z: unicode=NULL

  /

Return a translation table usable for str.translate().

If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping Unicode
ordinals (integers) or characters to Unicode ordinals, strings or None.
Character keys will be then converted to ordinals.
If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and
in the resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped to the
character at the same position in y. If there is a third argument, it
must be a string, whose characters will be mapped to None in the result.
[clinic start generated code]*/

static PyObject *
unicode_maketrans_impl(PyObject *x, PyObject *y, PyObject *z)
/*[clinic end generated code: output=a925c89452bd5881 input=7bfbf529a293c6c5]*/
{
    PyObject *new = NULL, *key, *value;
    Py_ssize_t i = 0;
    int res;

    new = PyDict_New();
    if (!new)
        return NULL;
    if (y != NULL) {
        int x_kind, y_kind, z_kind;
        void *x_data, *y_data, *z_data;

        /* x must be a string too, of equal length */
        if (!PyUnicode_Check(x)) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "first maketrans argument must "
                            "be a string if there is a second argument");
            goto err;
        }
        if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(x) != PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(y)) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "the first two maketrans "
                            "arguments must have equal length");
            goto err;
        }
        /* create entries for translating chars in x to those in y */
        x_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(x);
        y_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(y);
        x_data = PyUnicode_DATA(x);
        y_data = PyUnicode_DATA(y);
        for (i = 0; i < PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(x); i++) {
            key = PyLong_FromLong(PyUnicode_READ(x_kind, x_data, i));
            if (!key)
                goto err;
            value = PyLong_FromLong(PyUnicode_READ(y_kind, y_data, i));
            if (!value) {
                Py_DECREF(key);
                goto err;
            }
            res = PyDict_SetItem(new, key, value);
            Py_DECREF(key);
            Py_DECREF(value);
            if (res < 0)
                goto err;
        }
        /* create entries for deleting chars in z */
        if (z != NULL) {
            z_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(z);
            z_data = PyUnicode_DATA(z);
            for (i = 0; i < PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(z); i++) {
                key = PyLong_FromLong(PyUnicode_READ(z_kind, z_data, i));
                if (!key)
                    goto err;
                res = PyDict_SetItem(new, key, Py_None);
                Py_DECREF(key);
                if (res < 0)
                    goto err;
            }
        }
    } else {
        int kind;
        void *data;

        /* x must be a dict */
        if (!PyDict_CheckExact(x)) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "if you give only one argument "
                            "to maketrans it must be a dict");
            goto err;
        }
        /* copy entries into the new dict, converting string keys to int keys */
        while (PyDict_Next(x, &i, &key, &value)) {
            if (PyUnicode_Check(key)) {
                /* convert string keys to integer keys */
                PyObject *newkey;
                if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(key) != 1) {
                    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "string keys in translate "
                                    "table must be of length 1");
                    goto err;
                }
                kind = PyUnicode_KIND(key);
                data = PyUnicode_DATA(key);
                newkey = PyLong_FromLong(PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, 0));
                if (!newkey)
                    goto err;
                res = PyDict_SetItem(new, newkey, value);
                Py_DECREF(newkey);
                if (res < 0)
                    goto err;
            } else if (PyLong_Check(key)) {
                /* just keep integer keys */
                if (PyDict_SetItem(new, key, value) < 0)
                    goto err;
            } else {
                PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "keys in translate table must "
                                "be strings or integers");
                goto err;
            }
        }
    }
    return new;
  err:
    Py_DECREF(new);
    return NULL;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(translate__doc__,
             "S.translate(table) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of the string S in which each character has been mapped\n\
through the given translation table. The table must implement\n\
lookup/indexing via __getitem__, for instance a dictionary or list,\n\
mapping Unicode ordinals to Unicode ordinals, strings, or None. If\n\
this operation raises LookupError, the character is left untouched.\n\
Characters mapped to None are deleted.");

static PyObject*
unicode_translate(PyObject *self, PyObject *table)
{
    return _PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(self, table, "ignore");
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(upper__doc__,
             "S.upper() -> str\n\
\n\
Return a copy of S converted to uppercase.");

static PyObject*
unicode_upper(PyObject *self)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    if (PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self))
        return ascii_upper_or_lower(self, 0);
    return case_operation(self, do_upper);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(zfill__doc__,
             "S.zfill(width) -> str\n\
\n\
Pad a numeric string S with zeros on the left, to fill a field\n\
of the specified width. The string S is never truncated.");

static PyObject *
unicode_zfill(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    Py_ssize_t fill;
    PyObject *u;
    Py_ssize_t width;
    int kind;
    void *data;
    Py_UCS4 chr;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "n:zfill", &width))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self) >= width)
        return unicode_result_unchanged(self);

    fill = width - PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);

    u = pad(self, fill, 0, '0');

    if (u == NULL)
        return NULL;

    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(u);
    data = PyUnicode_DATA(u);
    chr = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, fill);

    if (chr == '+' || chr == '-') {
        /* move sign to beginning of string */
        PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, 0, chr);
        PyUnicode_WRITE(kind, data, fill, '0');
    }

    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(u, 1));
    return u;
}

#if 0
static PyObject *
unicode__decimal2ascii(PyObject *self)
{
    return PyUnicode_TransformDecimalAndSpaceToASCII(self);
}
#endif

PyDoc_STRVAR(startswith__doc__,
             "S.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]]) -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if S starts with the specified prefix, False otherwise.\n\
With optional start, test S beginning at that position.\n\
With optional end, stop comparing S at that position.\n\
prefix can also be a tuple of strings to try.");

static PyObject *
unicode_startswith(PyObject *self,
                   PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *subobj;
    PyObject *substring;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;
    int result;

    if (!stringlib_parse_args_finds("startswith", args, &subobj, &start, &end))
        return NULL;
    if (PyTuple_Check(subobj)) {
        Py_ssize_t i;
        for (i = 0; i < PyTuple_GET_SIZE(subobj); i++) {
            substring = PyTuple_GET_ITEM(subobj, i);
            if (!PyUnicode_Check(substring)) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "tuple for startswith must only contain str, "
                             "not %.100s",
                             Py_TYPE(substring)->tp_name);
                return NULL;
            }
            result = tailmatch(self, substring, start, end, -1);
            if (result == -1)
                return NULL;
            if (result) {
                Py_RETURN_TRUE;
            }
        }
        /* nothing matched */
        Py_RETURN_FALSE;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(subobj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "startswith first arg must be str or "
                     "a tuple of str, not %.100s", Py_TYPE(subobj)->tp_name);
        return NULL;
    }
    result = tailmatch(self, subobj, start, end, -1);
    if (result == -1)
        return NULL;
    return PyBool_FromLong(result);
}


PyDoc_STRVAR(endswith__doc__,
             "S.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]]) -> bool\n\
\n\
Return True if S ends with the specified suffix, False otherwise.\n\
With optional start, test S beginning at that position.\n\
With optional end, stop comparing S at that position.\n\
suffix can also be a tuple of strings to try.");

static PyObject *
unicode_endswith(PyObject *self,
                 PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *subobj;
    PyObject *substring;
    Py_ssize_t start = 0;
    Py_ssize_t end = PY_SSIZE_T_MAX;
    int result;

    if (!stringlib_parse_args_finds("endswith", args, &subobj, &start, &end))
        return NULL;
    if (PyTuple_Check(subobj)) {
        Py_ssize_t i;
        for (i = 0; i < PyTuple_GET_SIZE(subobj); i++) {
            substring = PyTuple_GET_ITEM(subobj, i);
            if (!PyUnicode_Check(substring)) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "tuple for endswith must only contain str, "
                             "not %.100s",
                             Py_TYPE(substring)->tp_name);
                return NULL;
            }
            result = tailmatch(self, substring, start, end, +1);
            if (result == -1)
                return NULL;
            if (result) {
                Py_RETURN_TRUE;
            }
        }
        Py_RETURN_FALSE;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(subobj)) {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                     "endswith first arg must be str or "
                     "a tuple of str, not %.100s", Py_TYPE(subobj)->tp_name);
        return NULL;
    }
    result = tailmatch(self, subobj, start, end, +1);
    if (result == -1)
        return NULL;
    return PyBool_FromLong(result);
}

static inline void
_PyUnicodeWriter_Update(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    writer->maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(writer->buffer);
    writer->data = PyUnicode_DATA(writer->buffer);

    if (!writer->readonly) {
        writer->kind = PyUnicode_KIND(writer->buffer);
        writer->size = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(writer->buffer);
    }
    else {
        /* use a value smaller than PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND() so
           _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind() will copy the buffer. */
        writer->kind = PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND;
        assert(writer->kind <= PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);

        /* Copy-on-write mode: set buffer size to 0 so
         * _PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare() will copy (and enlarge) the buffer on
         * next write. */
        writer->size = 0;
    }
}

void
_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    memset(writer, 0, sizeof(*writer));

    /* ASCII is the bare minimum */
    writer->min_char = 127;

    /* use a value smaller than PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND() so
       _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind() will copy the buffer. */
    writer->kind = PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND;
    assert(writer->kind <= PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND);
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareInternal(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
                                 Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 maxchar)
{
    Py_ssize_t newlen;
    PyObject *newbuffer;

    assert(maxchar <= MAX_UNICODE);

    /* ensure that the _PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare macro was used */
    assert((maxchar > writer->maxchar && length >= 0)
           || length > 0);

    if (length > PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - writer->pos) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return -1;
    }
    newlen = writer->pos + length;

    maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, writer->min_char);

    if (writer->buffer == NULL) {
        assert(!writer->readonly);
        if (writer->overallocate
            && newlen <= (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - newlen / OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR)) {
            /* overallocate to limit the number of realloc() */
            newlen += newlen / OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR;
        }
        if (newlen < writer->min_length)
            newlen = writer->min_length;

        writer->buffer = PyUnicode_New(newlen, maxchar);
        if (writer->buffer == NULL)
            return -1;
    }
    else if (newlen > writer->size) {
        if (writer->overallocate
            && newlen <= (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - newlen / OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR)) {
            /* overallocate to limit the number of realloc() */
            newlen += newlen / OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR;
        }
        if (newlen < writer->min_length)
            newlen = writer->min_length;

        if (maxchar > writer->maxchar || writer->readonly) {
            /* resize + widen */
            maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, writer->maxchar);
            newbuffer = PyUnicode_New(newlen, maxchar);
            if (newbuffer == NULL)
                return -1;
            _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(newbuffer, 0,
                                          writer->buffer, 0, writer->pos);
            Py_DECREF(writer->buffer);
            writer->readonly = 0;
        }
        else {
            newbuffer = resize_compact(writer->buffer, newlen);
            if (newbuffer == NULL)
                return -1;
        }
        writer->buffer = newbuffer;
    }
    else if (maxchar > writer->maxchar) {
        assert(!writer->readonly);
        newbuffer = PyUnicode_New(writer->size, maxchar);
        if (newbuffer == NULL)
            return -1;
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(newbuffer, 0,
                                      writer->buffer, 0, writer->pos);
        Py_SETREF(writer->buffer, newbuffer);
    }
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Update(writer);
    return 0;

#undef OVERALLOCATE_FACTOR
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKindInternal(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
                                     enum PyUnicode_Kind kind)
{
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;

    /* ensure that the _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind macro was used */
    assert(writer->kind < kind);

    switch (kind)
    {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: maxchar = 0xff; break;
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: maxchar = 0xffff; break;
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: maxchar = 0x10ffff; break;
    default:
        assert(0 && "invalid kind");
        return -1;
    }

    return _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareInternal(writer, 0, maxchar);
}

static inline int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, Py_UCS4 ch)
{
    assert(ch <= MAX_UNICODE);
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, 1, ch) < 0)
        return -1;
    PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos, ch);
    writer->pos++;
    return 0;
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, Py_UCS4 ch)
{
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, ch);
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *str)
{
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    Py_ssize_t len;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return -1;
    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    if (len == 0)
        return 0;
    maxchar = PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str);
    if (maxchar > writer->maxchar || len > writer->size - writer->pos) {
        if (writer->buffer == NULL && !writer->overallocate) {
            assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(str, 1));
            writer->readonly = 1;
            Py_INCREF(str);
            writer->buffer = str;
            _PyUnicodeWriter_Update(writer);
            writer->pos += len;
            return 0;
        }
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareInternal(writer, len, maxchar) == -1)
            return -1;
    }
    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(writer->buffer, writer->pos,
                                  str, 0, len);
    writer->pos += len;
    return 0;
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *str,
                                Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
{
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    Py_ssize_t len;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return -1;

    assert(0 <= start);
    assert(end <= PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str));
    assert(start <= end);

    if (end == 0)
        return 0;

    if (start == 0 && end == PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str))
        return _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str);

    if (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str) > writer->maxchar)
        maxchar = _PyUnicode_FindMaxChar(str, start, end);
    else
        maxchar = writer->maxchar;
    len = end - start;

    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, len, maxchar) < 0)
        return -1;

    _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(writer->buffer, writer->pos,
                                  str, start, len);
    writer->pos += len;
    return 0;
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
                                  const char *ascii, Py_ssize_t len)
{
    if (len == -1)
        len = strlen(ascii);

    assert(ucs1lib_find_max_char((Py_UCS1*)ascii, (Py_UCS1*)ascii + len) < 128);

    if (writer->buffer == NULL && !writer->overallocate) {
        PyObject *str;

        str = _PyUnicode_FromASCII(ascii, len);
        if (str == NULL)
            return -1;

        writer->readonly = 1;
        writer->buffer = str;
        _PyUnicodeWriter_Update(writer);
        writer->pos += len;
        return 0;
    }

    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, len, 127) == -1)
        return -1;

    switch (writer->kind)
    {
    case PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
    {
        const Py_UCS1 *str = (const Py_UCS1 *)ascii;
        Py_UCS1 *data = writer->data;

        Py_MEMCPY(data + writer->pos, str, len);
        break;
    }
    case PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND:
    {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2,
            ascii, ascii + len,
            (Py_UCS2 *)writer->data + writer->pos);
        break;
    }
    case PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND:
    {
        _PyUnicode_CONVERT_BYTES(
            Py_UCS1, Py_UCS4,
            ascii, ascii + len,
            (Py_UCS4 *)writer->data + writer->pos);
        break;
    }
    default:
        assert(0);
    }

    writer->pos += len;
    return 0;
}

int
_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
                                   const char *str, Py_ssize_t len)
{
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;

    maxchar = ucs1lib_find_max_char((Py_UCS1*)str, (Py_UCS1*)str + len);
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, len, maxchar) == -1)
        return -1;
    unicode_write_cstr(writer->buffer, writer->pos, str, len);
    writer->pos += len;
    return 0;
}

PyObject *
_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    PyObject *str;
    if (writer->pos == 0) {
        Py_CLEAR(writer->buffer);
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    }
    if (writer->readonly) {
        str = writer->buffer;
        writer->buffer = NULL;
        assert(PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) == writer->pos);
        return str;
    }
    if (writer->pos == 0) {
        Py_CLEAR(writer->buffer);

        /* Get the empty Unicode string singleton ('') */
        _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        str  = unicode_empty;
    }
    else {
        str = writer->buffer;
        writer->buffer = NULL;

        if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) != writer->pos) {
            PyObject *str2;
            str2 = resize_compact(str, writer->pos);
            if (str2 == NULL)
                return NULL;
            str = str2;
        }
    }

    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(str, 1));
    return unicode_result_ready(str);
}

void
_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(_PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    Py_CLEAR(writer->buffer);
}

#include "stringlib/unicode_format.h"

PyDoc_STRVAR(format__doc__,
             "S.format(*args, **kwargs) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a formatted version of S, using substitutions from args and kwargs.\n\
The substitutions are identified by braces ('{' and '}').");

PyDoc_STRVAR(format_map__doc__,
             "S.format_map(mapping) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a formatted version of S, using substitutions from mapping.\n\
The substitutions are identified by braces ('{' and '}').");

static PyObject *
unicode__format__(PyObject* self, PyObject* args)
{
    PyObject *format_spec;
    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
    int ret;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "U:__format__", &format_spec))
        return NULL;

    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer);
    ret = _PyUnicode_FormatAdvancedWriter(&writer,
                                          self, format_spec, 0,
                                          PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(format_spec));
    if (ret == -1) {
        _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer);
        return NULL;
    }
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(p_format__doc__,
             "S.__format__(format_spec) -> str\n\
\n\
Return a formatted version of S as described by format_spec.");

static PyObject *
unicode__sizeof__(PyObject *v)
{
    Py_ssize_t size;

    /* If it's a compact object, account for base structure +
       character data. */
    if (PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(v))
        size = sizeof(PyASCIIObject) + PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(v) + 1;
    else if (PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(v))
        size = sizeof(PyCompactUnicodeObject) +
            (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(v) + 1) * PyUnicode_KIND(v);
    else {
        /* If it is a two-block object, account for base object, and
           for character block if present. */
        size = sizeof(PyUnicodeObject);
        if (_PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(v))
            size += (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(v) + 1) *
                PyUnicode_KIND(v);
    }
    /* If the wstr pointer is present, account for it unless it is shared
       with the data pointer. Check if the data is not shared. */
    if (_PyUnicode_HAS_WSTR_MEMORY(v))
        size += (PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(v) + 1) * sizeof(wchar_t);
    if (_PyUnicode_HAS_UTF8_MEMORY(v))
        size += PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(v) + 1;

    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(size);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(sizeof__doc__,
             "S.__sizeof__() -> size of S in memory, in bytes");

static PyObject *
unicode_getnewargs(PyObject *v)
{
    PyObject *copy = _PyUnicode_Copy(v);
    if (!copy)
        return NULL;
    return Py_BuildValue("(N)", copy);
}

static PyMethodDef unicode_methods[] = {
    {"encode", (PyCFunction) unicode_encode, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, encode__doc__},
    {"replace", (PyCFunction) unicode_replace, METH_VARARGS, replace__doc__},
    {"split", (PyCFunction) unicode_split, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, split__doc__},
    {"rsplit", (PyCFunction) unicode_rsplit, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, rsplit__doc__},
    {"join", (PyCFunction) unicode_join, METH_O, join__doc__},
    {"capitalize", (PyCFunction) unicode_capitalize, METH_NOARGS, capitalize__doc__},
    {"casefold", (PyCFunction) unicode_casefold, METH_NOARGS, casefold__doc__},
    {"title", (PyCFunction) unicode_title, METH_NOARGS, title__doc__},
    {"center", (PyCFunction) unicode_center, METH_VARARGS, center__doc__},
    {"count", (PyCFunction) unicode_count, METH_VARARGS, count__doc__},
    {"expandtabs", (PyCFunction) unicode_expandtabs,
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, expandtabs__doc__},
    {"find", (PyCFunction) unicode_find, METH_VARARGS, find__doc__},
    {"partition", (PyCFunction) unicode_partition, METH_O, partition__doc__},
    {"index", (PyCFunction) unicode_index, METH_VARARGS, index__doc__},
    {"ljust", (PyCFunction) unicode_ljust, METH_VARARGS, ljust__doc__},
    {"lower", (PyCFunction) unicode_lower, METH_NOARGS, lower__doc__},
    {"lstrip", (PyCFunction) unicode_lstrip, METH_VARARGS, lstrip__doc__},
    {"rfind", (PyCFunction) unicode_rfind, METH_VARARGS, rfind__doc__},
    {"rindex", (PyCFunction) unicode_rindex, METH_VARARGS, rindex__doc__},
    {"rjust", (PyCFunction) unicode_rjust, METH_VARARGS, rjust__doc__},
    {"rstrip", (PyCFunction) unicode_rstrip, METH_VARARGS, rstrip__doc__},
    {"rpartition", (PyCFunction) unicode_rpartition, METH_O, rpartition__doc__},
    {"splitlines", (PyCFunction) unicode_splitlines,
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, splitlines__doc__},
    {"strip", (PyCFunction) unicode_strip, METH_VARARGS, strip__doc__},
    {"swapcase", (PyCFunction) unicode_swapcase, METH_NOARGS, swapcase__doc__},
    {"translate", (PyCFunction) unicode_translate, METH_O, translate__doc__},
    {"upper", (PyCFunction) unicode_upper, METH_NOARGS, upper__doc__},
    {"startswith", (PyCFunction) unicode_startswith, METH_VARARGS, startswith__doc__},
    {"endswith", (PyCFunction) unicode_endswith, METH_VARARGS, endswith__doc__},
    {"islower", (PyCFunction) unicode_islower, METH_NOARGS, islower__doc__},
    {"isupper", (PyCFunction) unicode_isupper, METH_NOARGS, isupper__doc__},
    {"istitle", (PyCFunction) unicode_istitle, METH_NOARGS, istitle__doc__},
    {"isspace", (PyCFunction) unicode_isspace, METH_NOARGS, isspace__doc__},
    {"isdecimal", (PyCFunction) unicode_isdecimal, METH_NOARGS, isdecimal__doc__},
    {"isdigit", (PyCFunction) unicode_isdigit, METH_NOARGS, isdigit__doc__},
    {"isnumeric", (PyCFunction) unicode_isnumeric, METH_NOARGS, isnumeric__doc__},
    {"isalpha", (PyCFunction) unicode_isalpha, METH_NOARGS, isalpha__doc__},
    {"isalnum", (PyCFunction) unicode_isalnum, METH_NOARGS, isalnum__doc__},
    {"isidentifier", (PyCFunction) unicode_isidentifier, METH_NOARGS, isidentifier__doc__},
    {"isprintable", (PyCFunction) unicode_isprintable, METH_NOARGS, isprintable__doc__},
    {"zfill", (PyCFunction) unicode_zfill, METH_VARARGS, zfill__doc__},
    {"format", (PyCFunction) do_string_format, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, format__doc__},
    {"format_map", (PyCFunction) do_string_format_map, METH_O, format_map__doc__},
    {"__format__", (PyCFunction) unicode__format__, METH_VARARGS, p_format__doc__},
    UNICODE_MAKETRANS_METHODDEF
    {"__sizeof__", (PyCFunction) unicode__sizeof__, METH_NOARGS, sizeof__doc__},
#if 0
    /* These methods are just used for debugging the implementation. */
    {"_decimal2ascii", (PyCFunction) unicode__decimal2ascii, METH_NOARGS},
#endif

    {"__getnewargs__",  (PyCFunction)unicode_getnewargs, METH_NOARGS},
    {NULL, NULL}
};

static PyObject *
unicode_mod(PyObject *v, PyObject *w)
{
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(v))
        Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED;
    return PyUnicode_Format(v, w);
}

static PyNumberMethods unicode_as_number = {
    0,              /*nb_add*/
    0,              /*nb_subtract*/
    0,              /*nb_multiply*/
    unicode_mod,            /*nb_remainder*/
};

static PySequenceMethods unicode_as_sequence = {
    (lenfunc) unicode_length,       /* sq_length */
    PyUnicode_Concat,           /* sq_concat */
    (ssizeargfunc) unicode_repeat,  /* sq_repeat */
    (ssizeargfunc) unicode_getitem,     /* sq_item */
    0,                  /* sq_slice */
    0,                  /* sq_ass_item */
    0,                  /* sq_ass_slice */
    PyUnicode_Contains,         /* sq_contains */
};

static PyObject*
unicode_subscript(PyObject* self, PyObject* item)
{
    if (PyUnicode_READY(self) == -1)
        return NULL;

    if (PyIndex_Check(item)) {
        Py_ssize_t i = PyNumber_AsSsize_t(item, PyExc_IndexError);
        if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
            return NULL;
        if (i < 0)
            i += PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self);
        return unicode_getitem(self, i);
    } else if (PySlice_Check(item)) {
        Py_ssize_t start, stop, step, slicelength, cur, i;
        PyObject *result;
        void *src_data, *dest_data;
        int src_kind, dest_kind;
        Py_UCS4 ch, max_char, kind_limit;

        if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(item, PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self),
                                 &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
            return NULL;
        }

        if (slicelength <= 0) {
            _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
        } else if (start == 0 && step == 1 &&
                   slicelength == PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(self)) {
            return unicode_result_unchanged(self);
        } else if (step == 1) {
            return PyUnicode_Substring(self,
                                       start, start + slicelength);
        }
        /* General case */
        src_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(self);
        src_data = PyUnicode_DATA(self);
        if (!PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(self)) {
            kind_limit = kind_maxchar_limit(src_kind);
            max_char = 0;
            for (cur = start, i = 0; i < slicelength; cur += step, i++) {
                ch = PyUnicode_READ(src_kind, src_data, cur);
                if (ch > max_char) {
                    max_char = ch;
                    if (max_char >= kind_limit)
                        break;
                }
            }
        }
        else
            max_char = 127;
        result = PyUnicode_New(slicelength, max_char);
        if (result == NULL)
            return NULL;
        dest_kind = PyUnicode_KIND(result);
        dest_data = PyUnicode_DATA(result);

        for (cur = start, i = 0; i < slicelength; cur += step, i++) {
            Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(src_kind, src_data, cur);
            PyUnicode_WRITE(dest_kind, dest_data, i, ch);
        }
        assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(result, 1));
        return result;
    } else {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "string indices must be integers");
        return NULL;
    }
}

static PyMappingMethods unicode_as_mapping = {
    (lenfunc)unicode_length,        /* mp_length */
    (binaryfunc)unicode_subscript,  /* mp_subscript */
    (objobjargproc)0,           /* mp_ass_subscript */
};


/* Helpers for PyUnicode_Format() */

struct unicode_formatter_t {
    PyObject *args;
    int args_owned;
    Py_ssize_t arglen, argidx;
    PyObject *dict;

    enum PyUnicode_Kind fmtkind;
    Py_ssize_t fmtcnt, fmtpos;
    void *fmtdata;
    PyObject *fmtstr;

    _PyUnicodeWriter writer;
};

struct unicode_format_arg_t {
    Py_UCS4 ch;
    int flags;
    Py_ssize_t width;
    int prec;
    int sign;
};

static PyObject *
unicode_format_getnextarg(struct unicode_formatter_t *ctx)
{
    Py_ssize_t argidx = ctx->argidx;

    if (argidx < ctx->arglen) {
        ctx->argidx++;
        if (ctx->arglen < 0)
            return ctx->args;
        else
            return PyTuple_GetItem(ctx->args, argidx);
    }
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                    "not enough arguments for format string");
    return NULL;
}

/* Returns a new reference to a PyUnicode object, or NULL on failure. */

/* Format a float into the writer if the writer is not NULL, or into *p_output
   otherwise.

   Return 0 on success, raise an exception and return -1 on error. */
static int
formatfloat(PyObject *v, struct unicode_format_arg_t *arg,
            PyObject **p_output,
            _PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    char *p;
    double x;
    Py_ssize_t len;
    int prec;
    int dtoa_flags;

    x = PyFloat_AsDouble(v);
    if (x == -1.0 && PyErr_Occurred())
        return -1;

    prec = arg->prec;
    if (prec < 0)
        prec = 6;

    if (arg->flags & F_ALT)
        dtoa_flags = Py_DTSF_ALT;
    else
        dtoa_flags = 0;
    p = PyOS_double_to_string(x, arg->ch, prec, dtoa_flags, NULL);
    if (p == NULL)
        return -1;
    len = strlen(p);
    if (writer) {
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(writer, p, len) < 0) {
            PyMem_Free(p);
            return -1;
        }
    }
    else
        *p_output = _PyUnicode_FromASCII(p, len);
    PyMem_Free(p);
    return 0;
}

/* formatlong() emulates the format codes d, u, o, x and X, and
 * the F_ALT flag, for Python's long (unbounded) ints.  It's not used for
 * Python's regular ints.
 * Return value:  a new PyUnicodeObject*, or NULL if error.
 *     The output string is of the form
 *         "-"? ("0x" | "0X")? digit+
 *     "0x"/"0X" are present only for x and X conversions, with F_ALT
 *         set in flags.  The case of hex digits will be correct,
 *     There will be at least prec digits, zero-filled on the left if
 *         necessary to get that many.
 * val          object to be converted
 * flags        bitmask of format flags; only F_ALT is looked at
 * prec         minimum number of digits; 0-fill on left if needed
 * type         a character in [duoxX]; u acts the same as d
 *
 * CAUTION:  o, x and X conversions on regular ints can never
 * produce a '-' sign, but can for Python's unbounded ints.
 */
PyObject *
_PyUnicode_FormatLong(PyObject *val, int alt, int prec, int type)
{
    PyObject *result = NULL;
    char *buf;
    Py_ssize_t i;
    int sign;           /* 1 if '-', else 0 */
    int len;            /* number of characters */
    Py_ssize_t llen;
    int numdigits;      /* len == numnondigits + numdigits */
    int numnondigits = 0;

    /* Avoid exceeding SSIZE_T_MAX */
    if (prec > INT_MAX-3) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                        "precision too large");
        return NULL;
    }

    assert(PyLong_Check(val));

    switch (type) {
    default:
        assert(!"'type' not in [diuoxX]");
    case 'd':
    case 'i':
    case 'u':
        /* int and int subclasses should print numerically when a numeric */
        /* format code is used (see issue18780) */
        result = PyNumber_ToBase(val, 10);
        break;
    case 'o':
        numnondigits = 2;
        result = PyNumber_ToBase(val, 8);
        break;
    case 'x':
    case 'X':
        numnondigits = 2;
        result = PyNumber_ToBase(val, 16);
        break;
    }
    if (!result)
        return NULL;

    assert(unicode_modifiable(result));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_READY(result));
    assert(PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(result));

    /* To modify the string in-place, there can only be one reference. */
    if (Py_REFCNT(result) != 1) {
        Py_DECREF(result);
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }
    buf = PyUnicode_DATA(result);
    llen = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(result);
    if (llen > INT_MAX) {
        Py_DECREF(result);
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                        "string too large in _PyUnicode_FormatLong");
        return NULL;
    }
    len = (int)llen;
    sign = buf[0] == '-';
    numnondigits += sign;
    numdigits = len - numnondigits;
    assert(numdigits > 0);

    /* Get rid of base marker unless F_ALT */
    if (((alt) == 0 &&
        (type == 'o' || type == 'x' || type == 'X'))) {
        assert(buf[sign] == '0');
        assert(buf[sign+1] == 'x' || buf[sign+1] == 'X' ||
               buf[sign+1] == 'o');
        numnondigits -= 2;
        buf += 2;
        len -= 2;
        if (sign)
            buf[0] = '-';
        assert(len == numnondigits + numdigits);
        assert(numdigits > 0);
    }

    /* Fill with leading zeroes to meet minimum width. */
    if (prec > numdigits) {
        PyObject *r1 = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL,
                                numnondigits + prec);
        char *b1;
        if (!r1) {
            Py_DECREF(result);
            return NULL;
        }
        b1 = PyBytes_AS_STRING(r1);
        for (i = 0; i < numnondigits; ++i)
            *b1++ = *buf++;
        for (i = 0; i < prec - numdigits; i++)
            *b1++ = '0';
        for (i = 0; i < numdigits; i++)
            *b1++ = *buf++;
        *b1 = '\0';
        Py_DECREF(result);
        result = r1;
        buf = PyBytes_AS_STRING(result);
        len = numnondigits + prec;
    }

    /* Fix up case for hex conversions. */
    if (type == 'X') {
        /* Need to convert all lower case letters to upper case.
           and need to convert 0x to 0X (and -0x to -0X). */
        for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
            if (buf[i] >= 'a' && buf[i] <= 'x')
                buf[i] -= 'a'-'A';
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(result)
        || buf != PyUnicode_DATA(result)) {
        PyObject *unicode;
        unicode = _PyUnicode_FromASCII(buf, len);
        Py_DECREF(result);
        result = unicode;
    }
    else if (len != PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(result)) {
        if (PyUnicode_Resize(&result, len) < 0)
            Py_CLEAR(result);
    }
    return result;
}

/* Format an integer or a float as an integer.
 * Return 1 if the number has been formatted into the writer,
 *        0 if the number has been formatted into *p_output
 *       -1 and raise an exception on error */
static int
mainformatlong(PyObject *v,
               struct unicode_format_arg_t *arg,
               PyObject **p_output,
               _PyUnicodeWriter *writer)
{
    PyObject *iobj, *res;
    char type = (char)arg->ch;

    if (!PyNumber_Check(v))
        goto wrongtype;

    /* make sure number is a type of integer for o, x, and X */
    if (!PyLong_Check(v)) {
        if (type == 'o' || type == 'x' || type == 'X') {
            iobj = PyNumber_Index(v);
            if (iobj == NULL) {
                if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_TypeError))
                    goto wrongtype;
                return -1;
            }
        }
        else {
            iobj = PyNumber_Long(v);
            if (iobj == NULL ) {
                if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_TypeError))
                    goto wrongtype;
                return -1;
            }
        }
        assert(PyLong_Check(iobj));
    }
    else {
        iobj = v;
        Py_INCREF(iobj);
    }

    if (PyLong_CheckExact(v)
        && arg->width == -1 && arg->prec == -1
        && !(arg->flags & (F_SIGN | F_BLANK))
        && type != 'X')
    {
        /* Fast path */
        int alternate = arg->flags & F_ALT;
        int base;

        switch(type)
        {
            default:
                assert(0 && "'type' not in [diuoxX]");
            case 'd':
            case 'i':
            case 'u':
                base = 10;
                break;
            case 'o':
                base = 8;
                break;
            case 'x':
            case 'X':
                base = 16;
                break;
        }

        if (_PyLong_FormatWriter(writer, v, base, alternate) == -1) {
            Py_DECREF(iobj);
            return -1;
        }
        Py_DECREF(iobj);
        return 1;
    }

    res = _PyUnicode_FormatLong(iobj, arg->flags & F_ALT, arg->prec, type);
    Py_DECREF(iobj);
    if (res == NULL)
        return -1;
    *p_output = res;
    return 0;

wrongtype:
    switch(type)
    {
        case 'o':
        case 'x':
        case 'X':
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                    "%%%c format: an integer is required, "
                    "not %.200s",
                    type, Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name);
            break;
        default:
            PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                    "%%%c format: a number is required, "
                    "not %.200s",
                    type, Py_TYPE(v)->tp_name);
            break;
    }
    return -1;
}

static Py_UCS4
formatchar(PyObject *v)
{
    /* presume that the buffer is at least 3 characters long */
    if (PyUnicode_Check(v)) {
        if (PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(v) == 1) {
            return PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(v, 0);
        }
        goto onError;
    }
    else {
        PyObject *iobj;
        long x;
        /* make sure number is a type of integer */
        if (!PyLong_Check(v)) {
            iobj = PyNumber_Index(v);
            if (iobj == NULL) {
                goto onError;
            }
            v = iobj;
            Py_DECREF(iobj);
        }
        /* Integer input truncated to a character */
        x = PyLong_AsLong(v);
        if (x == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
            goto onError;

        if (x < 0 || x > MAX_UNICODE) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                            "%c arg not in range(0x110000)");
            return (Py_UCS4) -1;
        }

        return (Py_UCS4) x;
    }

  onError:
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                    "%c requires int or char");
    return (Py_UCS4) -1;
}

/* Parse options of an argument: flags, width, precision.
   Handle also "%(name)" syntax.

   Return 0 if the argument has been formatted into arg->str.
   Return 1 if the argument has been written into ctx->writer,
   Raise an exception and return -1 on error. */
static int
unicode_format_arg_parse(struct unicode_formatter_t *ctx,
                         struct unicode_format_arg_t *arg)
{
#define FORMAT_READ(ctx) \
        PyUnicode_READ((ctx)->fmtkind, (ctx)->fmtdata, (ctx)->fmtpos)

    PyObject *v;

    if (arg->ch == '(') {
        /* Get argument value from a dictionary. Example: "%(name)s". */
        Py_ssize_t keystart;
        Py_ssize_t keylen;
        PyObject *key;
        int pcount = 1;

        if (ctx->dict == NULL) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                            "format requires a mapping");
            return -1;
        }
        ++ctx->fmtpos;
        --ctx->fmtcnt;
        keystart = ctx->fmtpos;
        /* Skip over balanced parentheses */
        while (pcount > 0 && --ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
            arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
            if (arg->ch == ')')
                --pcount;
            else if (arg->ch == '(')
                ++pcount;
            ctx->fmtpos++;
        }
        keylen = ctx->fmtpos - keystart - 1;
        if (ctx->fmtcnt < 0 || pcount > 0) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                            "incomplete format key");
            return -1;
        }
        key = PyUnicode_Substring(ctx->fmtstr,
                                  keystart, keystart + keylen);
        if (key == NULL)
            return -1;
        if (ctx->args_owned) {
            ctx->args_owned = 0;
            Py_DECREF(ctx->args);
        }
        ctx->args = PyObject_GetItem(ctx->dict, key);
        Py_DECREF(key);
        if (ctx->args == NULL)
            return -1;
        ctx->args_owned = 1;
        ctx->arglen = -1;
        ctx->argidx = -2;
    }

    /* Parse flags. Example: "%+i" => flags=F_SIGN. */
    while (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
        arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
        ctx->fmtpos++;
        switch (arg->ch) {
        case '-': arg->flags |= F_LJUST; continue;
        case '+': arg->flags |= F_SIGN; continue;
        case ' ': arg->flags |= F_BLANK; continue;
        case '#': arg->flags |= F_ALT; continue;
        case '0': arg->flags |= F_ZERO; continue;
        }
        break;
    }

    /* Parse width. Example: "%10s" => width=10 */
    if (arg->ch == '*') {
        v = unicode_format_getnextarg(ctx);
        if (v == NULL)
            return -1;
        if (!PyLong_Check(v)) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                            "* wants int");
            return -1;
        }
        arg->width = PyLong_AsSsize_t(v);
        if (arg->width == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
            return -1;
        if (arg->width < 0) {
            arg->flags |= F_LJUST;
            arg->width = -arg->width;
        }
        if (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
            arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
            ctx->fmtpos++;
        }
    }
    else if (arg->ch >= '0' && arg->ch <= '9') {
        arg->width = arg->ch - '0';
        while (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
            arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
            ctx->fmtpos++;
            if (arg->ch < '0' || arg->ch > '9')
                break;
            /* Since arg->ch is unsigned, the RHS would end up as unsigned,
               mixing signed and unsigned comparison. Since arg->ch is between
               '0' and '9', casting to int is safe. */
            if (arg->width > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - ((int)arg->ch - '0')) / 10) {
                PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                                "width too big");
                return -1;
            }
            arg->width = arg->width*10 + (arg->ch - '0');
        }
    }

    /* Parse precision. Example: "%.3f" => prec=3 */
    if (arg->ch == '.') {
        arg->prec = 0;
        if (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
            arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
            ctx->fmtpos++;
        }
        if (arg->ch == '*') {
            v = unicode_format_getnextarg(ctx);
            if (v == NULL)
                return -1;
            if (!PyLong_Check(v)) {
                PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                                "* wants int");
                return -1;
            }
            arg->prec = _PyLong_AsInt(v);
            if (arg->prec == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                return -1;
            if (arg->prec < 0)
                arg->prec = 0;
            if (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
                arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
                ctx->fmtpos++;
            }
        }
        else if (arg->ch >= '0' && arg->ch <= '9') {
            arg->prec = arg->ch - '0';
            while (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
                arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
                ctx->fmtpos++;
                if (arg->ch < '0' || arg->ch > '9')
                    break;
                if (arg->prec > (INT_MAX - ((int)arg->ch - '0')) / 10) {
                    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                                    "precision too big");
                    return -1;
                }
                arg->prec = arg->prec*10 + (arg->ch - '0');
            }
        }
    }

    /* Ignore "h", "l" and "L" format prefix (ex: "%hi" or "%ls") */
    if (ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
        if (arg->ch == 'h' || arg->ch == 'l' || arg->ch == 'L') {
            if (--ctx->fmtcnt >= 0) {
                arg->ch = FORMAT_READ(ctx);
                ctx->fmtpos++;
            }
        }
    }
    if (ctx->fmtcnt < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
                        "incomplete format");
        return -1;
    }
    return 0;

#undef FORMAT_READ
}

/* Format one argument. Supported conversion specifiers:

   - "s", "r", "a": any type
   - "i", "d", "u": int or float
   - "o", "x", "X": int
   - "e", "E", "f", "F", "g", "G": float
   - "c": int or str (1 character)

   When possible, the output is written directly into the Unicode writer
   (ctx->writer). A string is created when padding is required.

   Return 0 if the argument has been formatted into *p_str,
          1 if the argument has been written into ctx->writer,
         -1 on error. */
static int
unicode_format_arg_format(struct unicode_formatter_t *ctx,
                          struct unicode_format_arg_t *arg,
                          PyObject **p_str)
{
    PyObject *v;
    _PyUnicodeWriter *writer = &ctx->writer;

    if (ctx->fmtcnt == 0)
        ctx->writer.overallocate = 0;

    if (arg->ch == '%') {
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, '%') < 0)
            return -1;
        return 1;
    }

    v = unicode_format_getnextarg(ctx);
    if (v == NULL)
        return -1;


    switch (arg->ch) {
    case 's':
    case 'r':
    case 'a':
        if (PyLong_CheckExact(v) && arg->width == -1 && arg->prec == -1) {
            /* Fast path */
            if (_PyLong_FormatWriter(writer, v, 10, arg->flags & F_ALT) == -1)
                return -1;
            return 1;
        }

        if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(v) && arg->ch == 's') {
            *p_str = v;
            Py_INCREF(*p_str);
        }
        else {
            if (arg->ch == 's')
                *p_str = PyObject_Str(v);
            else if (arg->ch == 'r')
                *p_str = PyObject_Repr(v);
            else
                *p_str = PyObject_ASCII(v);
        }
        break;

    case 'i':
    case 'd':
    case 'u':
    case 'o':
    case 'x':
    case 'X':
    {
        int ret = mainformatlong(v, arg, p_str, writer);
        if (ret != 0)
            return ret;
        arg->sign = 1;
        break;
    }

    case 'e':
    case 'E':
    case 'f':
    case 'F':
    case 'g':
    case 'G':
        if (arg->width == -1 && arg->prec == -1
            && !(arg->flags & (F_SIGN | F_BLANK)))
        {
            /* Fast path */
            if (formatfloat(v, arg, NULL, writer) == -1)
                return -1;
            return 1;
        }

        arg->sign = 1;
        if (formatfloat(v, arg, p_str, NULL) == -1)
            return -1;
        break;

    case 'c':
    {
        Py_UCS4 ch = formatchar(v);
        if (ch == (Py_UCS4) -1)
            return -1;
        if (arg->width == -1 && arg->prec == -1) {
            /* Fast path */
            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteCharInline(writer, ch) < 0)
                return -1;
            return 1;
        }
        *p_str = PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(ch);
        break;
    }

    default:
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                     "unsupported format character '%c' (0x%x) "
                     "at index %zd",
                     (31<=arg->ch && arg->ch<=126) ? (char)arg->ch : '?',
                     (int)arg->ch,
                     ctx->fmtpos - 1);
        return -1;
    }
    if (*p_str == NULL)
        return -1;
    assert (PyUnicode_Check(*p_str));
    return 0;
}

static int
unicode_format_arg_output(struct unicode_formatter_t *ctx,
                          struct unicode_format_arg_t *arg,
                          PyObject *str)
{
    Py_ssize_t len;
    enum PyUnicode_Kind kind;
    void *pbuf;
    Py_ssize_t pindex;
    Py_UCS4 signchar;
    Py_ssize_t buflen;
    Py_UCS4 maxchar;
    Py_ssize_t sublen;
    _PyUnicodeWriter *writer = &ctx->writer;
    Py_UCS4 fill;

    fill = ' ';
    if (arg->sign && arg->flags & F_ZERO)
        fill = '0';

    if (PyUnicode_READY(str) == -1)
        return -1;

    len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str);
    if ((arg->width == -1 || arg->width <= len)
        && (arg->prec == -1 || arg->prec >= len)
        && !(arg->flags & (F_SIGN | F_BLANK)))
    {
        /* Fast path */
        if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str) == -1)
            return -1;
        return 0;
    }

    /* Truncate the string for "s", "r" and "a" formats
       if the precision is set */
    if (arg->ch == 's' || arg->ch == 'r' || arg->ch == 'a') {
        if (arg->prec >= 0 && len > arg->prec)
            len = arg->prec;
    }

    /* Adjust sign and width */
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(str);
    pbuf = PyUnicode_DATA(str);
    pindex = 0;
    signchar = '\0';
    if (arg->sign) {
        Py_UCS4 ch = PyUnicode_READ(kind, pbuf, pindex);
        if (ch == '-' || ch == '+') {
            signchar = ch;
            len--;
            pindex++;
        }
        else if (arg->flags & F_SIGN)
            signchar = '+';
        else if (arg->flags & F_BLANK)
            signchar = ' ';
        else
            arg->sign = 0;
    }
    if (arg->width < len)
        arg->width = len;

    /* Prepare the writer */
    maxchar = writer->maxchar;
    if (!(arg->flags & F_LJUST)) {
        if (arg->sign) {
            if ((arg->width-1) > len)
                maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, fill);
        }
        else {
            if (arg->width > len)
                maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, fill);
        }
    }
    if (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(str) > maxchar) {
        Py_UCS4 strmaxchar = _PyUnicode_FindMaxChar(str, 0, pindex+len);
        maxchar = Py_MAX(maxchar, strmaxchar);
    }

    buflen = arg->width;
    if (arg->sign && len == arg->width)
        buflen++;
    if (_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(writer, buflen, maxchar) == -1)
        return -1;

    /* Write the sign if needed */
    if (arg->sign) {
        if (fill != ' ') {
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos, signchar);
            writer->pos += 1;
        }
        if (arg->width > len)
            arg->width--;
    }

    /* Write the numeric prefix for "x", "X" and "o" formats
       if the alternate form is used.
       For example, write "0x" for the "%#x" format. */
    if ((arg->flags & F_ALT) && (arg->ch == 'x' || arg->ch == 'X' || arg->ch == 'o')) {
        assert(PyUnicode_READ(kind, pbuf, pindex) == '0');
        assert(PyUnicode_READ(kind, pbuf, pindex + 1) == arg->ch);
        if (fill != ' ') {
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos, '0');
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos+1, arg->ch);
            writer->pos += 2;
            pindex += 2;
        }
        arg->width -= 2;
        if (arg->width < 0)
            arg->width = 0;
        len -= 2;
    }

    /* Pad left with the fill character if needed */
    if (arg->width > len && !(arg->flags & F_LJUST)) {
        sublen = arg->width - len;
        FILL(writer->kind, writer->data, fill, writer->pos, sublen);
        writer->pos += sublen;
        arg->width = len;
    }

    /* If padding with spaces: write sign if needed and/or numeric prefix if
       the alternate form is used */
    if (fill == ' ') {
        if (arg->sign) {
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos, signchar);
            writer->pos += 1;
        }
        if ((arg->flags & F_ALT) && (arg->ch == 'x' || arg->ch == 'X' || arg->ch == 'o')) {
            assert(PyUnicode_READ(kind, pbuf, pindex) == '0');
            assert(PyUnicode_READ(kind, pbuf, pindex+1) == arg->ch);
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos, '0');
            PyUnicode_WRITE(writer->kind, writer->data, writer->pos+1, arg->ch);
            writer->pos += 2;
            pindex += 2;
        }
    }

    /* Write characters */
    if (len) {
        _PyUnicode_FastCopyCharacters(writer->buffer, writer->pos,
                                      str, pindex, len);
        writer->pos += len;
    }

    /* Pad right with the fill character if needed */
    if (arg->width > len) {
        sublen = arg->width - len;
        FILL(writer->kind, writer->data, ' ', writer->pos, sublen);
        writer->pos += sublen;
    }
    return 0;
}

/* Helper of PyUnicode_Format(): format one arg.
   Return 0 on success, raise an exception and return -1 on error. */
static int
unicode_format_arg(struct unicode_formatter_t *ctx)
{
    struct unicode_format_arg_t arg;
    PyObject *str;
    int ret;

    arg.ch = PyUnicode_READ(ctx->fmtkind, ctx->fmtdata, ctx->fmtpos);
    arg.flags = 0;
    arg.width = -1;
    arg.prec = -1;
    arg.sign = 0;
    str = NULL;

    ret = unicode_format_arg_parse(ctx, &arg);
    if (ret == -1)
        return -1;

    ret = unicode_format_arg_format(ctx, &arg, &str);
    if (ret == -1)
        return -1;

    if (ret != 1) {
        ret = unicode_format_arg_output(ctx, &arg, str);
        Py_DECREF(str);
        if (ret == -1)
            return -1;
    }

    if (ctx->dict && (ctx->argidx < ctx->arglen) && arg.ch != '%') {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "not all arguments converted during string formatting");
        return -1;
    }
    return 0;
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_Format(PyObject *format, PyObject *args)
{
    struct unicode_formatter_t ctx;

    if (format == NULL || args == NULL) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }

    if (ensure_unicode(format) < 0)
        return NULL;

    ctx.fmtstr = format;
    ctx.fmtdata = PyUnicode_DATA(ctx.fmtstr);
    ctx.fmtkind = PyUnicode_KIND(ctx.fmtstr);
    ctx.fmtcnt = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(ctx.fmtstr);
    ctx.fmtpos = 0;

    _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&ctx.writer);
    ctx.writer.min_length = ctx.fmtcnt + 100;
    ctx.writer.overallocate = 1;

    if (PyTuple_Check(args)) {
        ctx.arglen = PyTuple_Size(args);
        ctx.argidx = 0;
    }
    else {
        ctx.arglen = -1;
        ctx.argidx = -2;
    }
    ctx.args_owned = 0;
    if (PyMapping_Check(args) && !PyTuple_Check(args) && !PyUnicode_Check(args))
        ctx.dict = args;
    else
        ctx.dict = NULL;
    ctx.args = args;

    while (--ctx.fmtcnt >= 0) {
        if (PyUnicode_READ(ctx.fmtkind, ctx.fmtdata, ctx.fmtpos) != '%') {
            Py_ssize_t nonfmtpos;

            nonfmtpos = ctx.fmtpos++;
            while (ctx.fmtcnt >= 0 &&
                   PyUnicode_READ(ctx.fmtkind, ctx.fmtdata, ctx.fmtpos) != '%') {
                ctx.fmtpos++;
                ctx.fmtcnt--;
            }
            if (ctx.fmtcnt < 0) {
                ctx.fmtpos--;
                ctx.writer.overallocate = 0;
            }

            if (_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&ctx.writer, ctx.fmtstr,
                                                nonfmtpos, ctx.fmtpos) < 0)
                goto onError;
        }
        else {
            ctx.fmtpos++;
            if (unicode_format_arg(&ctx) == -1)
                goto onError;
        }
    }

    if (ctx.argidx < ctx.arglen && !ctx.dict) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "not all arguments converted during string formatting");
        goto onError;
    }

    if (ctx.args_owned) {
        Py_DECREF(ctx.args);
    }
    return _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&ctx.writer);

  onError:
    _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&ctx.writer);
    if (ctx.args_owned) {
        Py_DECREF(ctx.args);
    }
    return NULL;
}

static PyObject *
unicode_subtype_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

static PyObject *
unicode_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    PyObject *x = NULL;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"object", "encoding", "errors", 0};
    char *encoding = NULL;
    char *errors = NULL;

    if (type != &PyUnicode_Type)
        return unicode_subtype_new(type, args, kwds);
    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|Oss:str",
                                     kwlist, &x, &encoding, &errors))
        return NULL;
    if (x == NULL)
        _Py_RETURN_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    if (encoding == NULL && errors == NULL)
        return PyObject_Str(x);
    else
        return PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(x, encoding, errors);
}

static PyObject *
unicode_subtype_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    PyObject *unicode, *self;
    Py_ssize_t length, char_size;
    int share_wstr, share_utf8;
    unsigned int kind;
    void *data;

    assert(PyType_IsSubtype(type, &PyUnicode_Type));

    unicode = unicode_new(&PyUnicode_Type, args, kwds);
    if (unicode == NULL)
        return NULL;
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(unicode));
    if (PyUnicode_READY(unicode) == -1) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        return NULL;
    }

    self = type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
    if (self == NULL) {
        Py_DECREF(unicode);
        return NULL;
    }
    kind = PyUnicode_KIND(unicode);
    length = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(unicode);

    _PyUnicode_LENGTH(self) = length;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    _PyUnicode_HASH(self) = -1;
#else
    _PyUnicode_HASH(self) = _PyUnicode_HASH(unicode);
#endif
    _PyUnicode_STATE(self).interned = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(self).kind = kind;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(self).compact = 0;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(self).ascii = _PyUnicode_STATE(unicode).ascii;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(self).ready = 1;
    _PyUnicode_WSTR(self) = NULL;
    _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(self) = 0;
    _PyUnicode_UTF8(self) = NULL;
    _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(self) = 0;
    _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(self) = NULL;

    share_utf8 = 0;
    share_wstr = 0;
    if (kind == PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND) {
        char_size = 1;
        if (PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(unicode) < 128)
            share_utf8 = 1;
    }
    else if (kind == PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND) {
        char_size = 2;
        if (sizeof(wchar_t) == 2)
            share_wstr = 1;
    }
    else {
        assert(kind == PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND);
        char_size = 4;
        if (sizeof(wchar_t) == 4)
            share_wstr = 1;
    }

    /* Ensure we won't overflow the length. */
    if (length > (PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / char_size - 1)) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        goto onError;
    }
    data = PyObject_MALLOC((length + 1) * char_size);
    if (data == NULL) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        goto onError;
    }

    _PyUnicode_DATA_ANY(self) = data;
    if (share_utf8) {
        _PyUnicode_UTF8_LENGTH(self) = length;
        _PyUnicode_UTF8(self) = data;
    }
    if (share_wstr) {
        _PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH(self) = length;
        _PyUnicode_WSTR(self) = (wchar_t *)data;
    }

    Py_MEMCPY(data, PyUnicode_DATA(unicode),
              kind * (length + 1));
    assert(_PyUnicode_CheckConsistency(self, 1));
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    _PyUnicode_HASH(self) = _PyUnicode_HASH(unicode);
#endif
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    return self;

onError:
    Py_DECREF(unicode);
    Py_DECREF(self);
    return NULL;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(unicode_doc,
"str(object='') -> str\n\
str(bytes_or_buffer[, encoding[, errors]]) -> str\n\
\n\
Create a new string object from the given object. If encoding or\n\
errors is specified, then the object must expose a data buffer\n\
that will be decoded using the given encoding and error handler.\n\
Otherwise, returns the result of object.__str__() (if defined)\n\
or repr(object).\n\
encoding defaults to sys.getdefaultencoding().\n\
errors defaults to 'strict'.");

static PyObject *unicode_iter(PyObject *seq);

PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
    "str",              /* tp_name */
    sizeof(PyUnicodeObject),        /* tp_size */
    0,                  /* tp_itemsize */
    /* Slots */
    (destructor)unicode_dealloc,    /* tp_dealloc */
    0,                  /* tp_print */
    0,                  /* tp_getattr */
    0,                  /* tp_setattr */
    0,                  /* tp_reserved */
    unicode_repr,           /* tp_repr */
    &unicode_as_number,         /* tp_as_number */
    &unicode_as_sequence,       /* tp_as_sequence */
    &unicode_as_mapping,        /* tp_as_mapping */
    (hashfunc) unicode_hash,        /* tp_hash*/
    0,                  /* tp_call*/
    (reprfunc) unicode_str,     /* tp_str */
    PyObject_GenericGetAttr,        /* tp_getattro */
    0,                  /* tp_setattro */
    0,                  /* tp_as_buffer */
    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
    Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS,    /* tp_flags */
    unicode_doc,            /* tp_doc */
    0,                  /* tp_traverse */
    0,                  /* tp_clear */
    PyUnicode_RichCompare,      /* tp_richcompare */
    0,                  /* tp_weaklistoffset */
    unicode_iter,           /* tp_iter */
    0,                  /* tp_iternext */
    unicode_methods,            /* tp_methods */
    0,                  /* tp_members */
    0,                  /* tp_getset */
    &PyBaseObject_Type,         /* tp_base */
    0,                  /* tp_dict */
    0,                  /* tp_descr_get */
    0,                  /* tp_descr_set */
    0,                  /* tp_dictoffset */
    0,                  /* tp_init */
    0,                  /* tp_alloc */
    unicode_new,            /* tp_new */
    PyObject_Del,           /* tp_free */
};

/* Initialize the Unicode implementation */

int _PyUnicode_Init(void)
{
    /* XXX - move this array to unicodectype.c ? */
    Py_UCS2 linebreak[] = {
        0x000A, /* LINE FEED */
        0x000D, /* CARRIAGE RETURN */
        0x001C, /* FILE SEPARATOR */
        0x001D, /* GROUP SEPARATOR */
        0x001E, /* RECORD SEPARATOR */
        0x0085, /* NEXT LINE */
        0x2028, /* LINE SEPARATOR */
        0x2029, /* PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR */
    };

    /* Init the implementation */
    _Py_INCREF_UNICODE_EMPTY();
    if (!unicode_empty)
        Py_FatalError("Can't create empty string");
    Py_DECREF(unicode_empty);

    if (PyType_Ready(&PyUnicode_Type) < 0)
        Py_FatalError("Can't initialize 'unicode'");

    /* initialize the linebreak bloom filter */
    bloom_linebreak = make_bloom_mask(
        PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND, linebreak,
        Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(linebreak));

    if (PyType_Ready(&EncodingMapType) < 0)
         Py_FatalError("Can't initialize encoding map type");

    if (PyType_Ready(&PyFieldNameIter_Type) < 0)
        Py_FatalError("Can't initialize field name iterator type");

    if (PyType_Ready(&PyFormatterIter_Type) < 0)
        Py_FatalError("Can't initialize formatter iter type");

    return 0;
}

/* Finalize the Unicode implementation */

int
PyUnicode_ClearFreeList(void)
{
    return 0;
}

void
_PyUnicode_Fini(void)
{
    int i;

    Py_CLEAR(unicode_empty);

    for (i = 0; i < 256; i++)
        Py_CLEAR(unicode_latin1[i]);
    _PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings();
    (void)PyUnicode_ClearFreeList();
}

void
PyUnicode_InternInPlace(PyObject **p)
{
    PyObject *s = *p;
    PyObject *t;
#ifdef Py_DEBUG
    assert(s != NULL);
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(s));
#else
    if (s == NULL || !PyUnicode_Check(s))
        return;
#endif
    /* If it's a subclass, we don't really know what putting
       it in the interned dict might do. */
    if (!PyUnicode_CheckExact(s))
        return;
    if (PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(s))
        return;
    if (interned == NULL) {
        interned = PyDict_New();
        if (interned == NULL) {
            PyErr_Clear(); /* Don't leave an exception */
            return;
        }
    }
    Py_ALLOW_RECURSION
    t = PyDict_SetDefault(interned, s, s);
    Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION
    if (t == NULL) {
        PyErr_Clear();
        return;
    }
    if (t != s) {
        Py_INCREF(t);
        Py_SETREF(*p, t);
        return;
    }
    /* The two references in interned are not counted by refcnt.
       The deallocator will take care of this */
    Py_REFCNT(s) -= 2;
    _PyUnicode_STATE(s).interned = SSTATE_INTERNED_MORTAL;
}

void
PyUnicode_InternImmortal(PyObject **p)
{
    PyUnicode_InternInPlace(p);
    if (PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(*p) != SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL) {
        _PyUnicode_STATE(*p).interned = SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL;
        Py_INCREF(*p);
    }
}

PyObject *
PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *cp)
{
    PyObject *s = PyUnicode_FromString(cp);
    if (s == NULL)
        return NULL;
    PyUnicode_InternInPlace(&s);
    return s;
}

void
_Py_ReleaseInternedUnicodeStrings(void)
{
    PyObject *keys;
    PyObject *s;
    Py_ssize_t i, n;
    Py_ssize_t immortal_size = 0, mortal_size = 0;

    if (interned == NULL || !PyDict_Check(interned))
        return;
    keys = PyDict_Keys(interned);
    if (keys == NULL || !PyList_Check(keys)) {
        PyErr_Clear();
        return;
    }

    /* Since _Py_ReleaseInternedUnicodeStrings() is intended to help a leak
       detector, interned unicode strings are not forcibly deallocated;
       rather, we give them their stolen references back, and then clear
       and DECREF the interned dict. */

    n = PyList_GET_SIZE(keys);
    fprintf(stderr, "releasing %" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "d interned strings\n",
            n);
    for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        s = PyList_GET_ITEM(keys, i);
        if (PyUnicode_READY(s) == -1) {
            assert(0 && "could not ready string");
            fprintf(stderr, "could not ready string\n");
        }
        switch (PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(s)) {
        case SSTATE_NOT_INTERNED:
            /* XXX Shouldn't happen */
            break;
        case SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL:
            Py_REFCNT(s) += 1;
            immortal_size += PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(s);
            break;
        case SSTATE_INTERNED_MORTAL:
            Py_REFCNT(s) += 2;
            mortal_size += PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(s);
            break;
        default:
            Py_FatalError("Inconsistent interned string state.");
        }
        _PyUnicode_STATE(s).interned = SSTATE_NOT_INTERNED;
    }
    fprintf(stderr, "total size of all interned strings: "
            "%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "d/%" PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T "d "
            "mortal/immortal\n", mortal_size, immortal_size);
    Py_DECREF(keys);
    PyDict_Clear(interned);
    Py_CLEAR(interned);
}


/********************* Unicode Iterator **************************/

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    Py_ssize_t it_index;
    PyObject *it_seq;    /* Set to NULL when iterator is exhausted */
} unicodeiterobject;

static void
unicodeiter_dealloc(unicodeiterobject *it)
{
    _PyObject_GC_UNTRACK(it);
    Py_XDECREF(it->it_seq);
    PyObject_GC_Del(it);
}

static int
unicodeiter_traverse(unicodeiterobject *it, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    Py_VISIT(it->it_seq);
    return 0;
}

static PyObject *
unicodeiter_next(unicodeiterobject *it)
{
    PyObject *seq, *item;

    assert(it != NULL);
    seq = it->it_seq;
    if (seq == NULL)
        return NULL;
    assert(_PyUnicode_CHECK(seq));

    if (it->it_index < PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(seq)) {
        int kind = PyUnicode_KIND(seq);
        void *data = PyUnicode_DATA(seq);
        Py_UCS4 chr = PyUnicode_READ(kind, data, it->it_index);
        item = PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(chr);
        if (item != NULL)
            ++it->it_index;
        return item;
    }

    it->it_seq = NULL;
    Py_DECREF(seq);
    return NULL;
}

static PyObject *
unicodeiter_len(unicodeiterobject *it)
{
    Py_ssize_t len = 0;
    if (it->it_seq)
        len = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(it->it_seq) - it->it_index;
    return PyLong_FromSsize_t(len);
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(length_hint_doc, "Private method returning an estimate of len(list(it)).");

static PyObject *
unicodeiter_reduce(unicodeiterobject *it)
{
    if (it->it_seq != NULL) {
        return Py_BuildValue("N(O)n", _PyObject_GetBuiltin("iter"),
                             it->it_seq, it->it_index);
    } else {
        PyObject *u = PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, 0);
        if (u == NULL)
            return NULL;
        return Py_BuildValue("N(N)", _PyObject_GetBuiltin("iter"), u);
    }
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(reduce_doc, "Return state information for pickling.");

static PyObject *
unicodeiter_setstate(unicodeiterobject *it, PyObject *state)
{
    Py_ssize_t index = PyLong_AsSsize_t(state);
    if (index == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
        return NULL;
    if (it->it_seq != NULL) {
        if (index < 0)
            index = 0;
        else if (index > PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(it->it_seq))
            index = PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(it->it_seq); /* iterator truncated */
        it->it_index = index;
    }
    Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(setstate_doc, "Set state information for unpickling.");

static PyMethodDef unicodeiter_methods[] = {
    {"__length_hint__", (PyCFunction)unicodeiter_len, METH_NOARGS,
     length_hint_doc},
    {"__reduce__",      (PyCFunction)unicodeiter_reduce, METH_NOARGS,
     reduce_doc},
    {"__setstate__",    (PyCFunction)unicodeiter_setstate, METH_O,
     setstate_doc},
    {NULL,      NULL}       /* sentinel */
};

PyTypeObject PyUnicodeIter_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
    "str_iterator",         /* tp_name */
    sizeof(unicodeiterobject),      /* tp_basicsize */
    0,                  /* tp_itemsize */
    /* methods */
    (destructor)unicodeiter_dealloc,    /* tp_dealloc */
    0,                  /* tp_print */
    0,                  /* tp_getattr */
    0,                  /* tp_setattr */
    0,                  /* tp_reserved */
    0,                  /* tp_repr */
    0,                  /* tp_as_number */
    0,                  /* tp_as_sequence */
    0,                  /* tp_as_mapping */
    0,                  /* tp_hash */
    0,                  /* tp_call */
    0,                  /* tp_str */
    PyObject_GenericGetAttr,        /* tp_getattro */
    0,                  /* tp_setattro */
    0,                  /* tp_as_buffer */
    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,/* tp_flags */
    0,                  /* tp_doc */
    (traverseproc)unicodeiter_traverse, /* tp_traverse */
    0,                  /* tp_clear */
    0,                  /* tp_richcompare */
    0,                  /* tp_weaklistoffset */
    PyObject_SelfIter,          /* tp_iter */
    (iternextfunc)unicodeiter_next,     /* tp_iternext */
    unicodeiter_methods,            /* tp_methods */
    0,
};

static PyObject *
unicode_iter(PyObject *seq)
{
    unicodeiterobject *it;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(seq)) {
        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
        return NULL;
    }
    if (PyUnicode_READY(seq) == -1)
        return NULL;
    it = PyObject_GC_New(unicodeiterobject, &PyUnicodeIter_Type);
    if (it == NULL)
        return NULL;
    it->it_index = 0;
    Py_INCREF(seq);
    it->it_seq = seq;
    _PyObject_GC_TRACK(it);
    return (PyObject *)it;
}


size_t
Py_UNICODE_strlen(const Py_UNICODE *u)
{
    int res = 0;
    while(*u++)
        res++;
    return res;
}

Py_UNICODE*
Py_UNICODE_strcpy(Py_UNICODE *s1, const Py_UNICODE *s2)
{
    Py_UNICODE *u = s1;
    while ((*u++ = *s2++));
    return s1;
}

Py_UNICODE*
Py_UNICODE_strncpy(Py_UNICODE *s1, const Py_UNICODE *s2, size_t n)
{
    Py_UNICODE *u = s1;
    while ((*u++ = *s2++))
        if (n-- == 0)
            break;
    return s1;
}

Py_UNICODE*
Py_UNICODE_strcat(Py_UNICODE *s1, const Py_UNICODE *s2)
{
    Py_UNICODE *u1 = s1;
    u1 += Py_UNICODE_strlen(u1);
    Py_UNICODE_strcpy(u1, s2);
    return s1;
}

int
Py_UNICODE_strcmp(const Py_UNICODE *s1, const Py_UNICODE *s2)
{
    while (*s1 && *s2 && *s1 == *s2)
        s1++, s2++;
    if (*s1 && *s2)
        return (*s1 < *s2) ? -1 : +1;
    if (*s1)
        return 1;
    if (*s2)
        return -1;
    return 0;
}

int
Py_UNICODE_strncmp(const Py_UNICODE *s1, const Py_UNICODE *s2, size_t n)
{
    Py_UNICODE u1, u2;
    for (; n != 0; n--) {
        u1 = *s1;
        u2 = *s2;
        if (u1 != u2)
            return (u1 < u2) ? -1 : +1;
        if (u1 == '\0')
            return 0;
        s1++;
        s2++;
    }
    return 0;
}

Py_UNICODE*
Py_UNICODE_strchr(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_UNICODE c)
{
    const Py_UNICODE *p;
    for (p = s; *p; p++)
        if (*p == c)
            return (Py_UNICODE*)p;
    return NULL;
}

Py_UNICODE*
Py_UNICODE_strrchr(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_UNICODE c)
{
    const Py_UNICODE *p;
    p = s + Py_UNICODE_strlen(s);
    while (p != s) {
        p--;
        if (*p == c)
            return (Py_UNICODE*)p;
    }
    return NULL;
}

Py_UNICODE*
PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(PyObject *unicode)
{
    Py_UNICODE *u, *copy;
    Py_ssize_t len, size;

    if (!PyUnicode_Check(unicode)) {
        PyErr_BadArgument();
        return NULL;
    }
    u = PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(unicode, &len);
    if (u == NULL)
        return NULL;
    /* Ensure we won't overflow the size. */
    if (len > ((PY_SSIZE_T_MAX / (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(Py_UNICODE)) - 1)) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }
    size = len + 1; /* copy the null character */
    size *= sizeof(Py_UNICODE);
    copy = PyMem_Malloc(size);
    if (copy == NULL) {
        PyErr_NoMemory();
        return NULL;
    }
    memcpy(copy, u, size);
    return copy;
}

/* A _string module, to export formatter_parser and formatter_field_name_split
   to the string.Formatter class implemented in Python. */

static PyMethodDef _string_methods[] = {
    {"formatter_field_name_split", (PyCFunction) formatter_field_name_split,
     METH_O, PyDoc_STR("split the argument as a field name")},
    {"formatter_parser", (PyCFunction) formatter_parser,
     METH_O, PyDoc_STR("parse the argument as a format string")},
    {NULL, NULL}
};

static struct PyModuleDef _string_module = {
    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    "_string",
    PyDoc_STR("string helper module"),
    0,
    _string_methods,
    NULL,
    NULL,
    NULL,
    NULL
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit__string(void)
{
    return PyModule_Create(&_string_module);
}


#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif