diff --git a/Doc/extending/building.rst b/Doc/extending/building.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e1dec8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/building.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _building:
+
+********************************************
+Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
+********************************************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+
+Starting in Python 1.4, Python provides, on Unix, a special make file for
+building make files for building dynamically-linked extensions and custom
+interpreters.  Starting with Python 2.0, this mechanism (known as related to
+Makefile.pre.in, and Setup files) is no longer supported. Building custom
+interpreters was rarely used, and extension modules can be built using
+distutils.
+
+Building an extension module using distutils requires that distutils is
+installed on the build machine, which is included in Python 2.x and available
+separately for Python 1.5. Since distutils also supports creation of binary
+packages, users don't necessarily need a compiler and distutils to install the
+extension.
+
+A distutils package contains a driver script, :file:`setup.py`. This is a plain
+Python file, which, in the most simple case, could look like this::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+
+   module1 = Extension('demo',
+                       sources = ['demo.c'])
+
+   setup (name = 'PackageName',
+          version = '1.0',
+          description = 'This is a demo package',
+          ext_modules = [module1])
+
+
+With this :file:`setup.py`, and a file :file:`demo.c`, running ::
+
+   python setup.py build 
+
+will compile :file:`demo.c`, and produce an extension module named ``demo`` in
+the :file:`build` directory. Depending on the system, the module file will end
+up in a subdirectory :file:`build/lib.system`, and may have a name like
+:file:`demo.so` or :file:`demo.pyd`.
+
+In the :file:`setup.py`, all execution is performed by calling the ``setup``
+function. This takes a variable number of keyword arguments, of which the
+example above uses only a subset. Specifically, the example specifies
+meta-information to build packages, and it specifies the contents of the
+package.  Normally, a package will contain of addition modules, like Python
+source modules, documentation, subpackages, etc. Please refer to the distutils
+documentation in :ref:`distutils-index` to learn more about the features of
+distutils; this section explains building extension modules only.
+
+It is common to pre-compute arguments to :func:`setup`, to better structure the
+driver script. In the example above, the\ ``ext_modules`` argument to
+:func:`setup` is a list of extension modules, each of which is an instance of
+the :class:`Extension`. In the example, the instance defines an extension named
+``demo`` which is build by compiling a single source file, :file:`demo.c`.
+
+In many cases, building an extension is more complex, since additional
+preprocessor defines and libraries may be needed. This is demonstrated in the
+example below. ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+
+   module1 = Extension('demo',
+                       define_macros = [('MAJOR_VERSION', '1'),
+                                        ('MINOR_VERSION', '0')],
+                       include_dirs = ['/usr/local/include'],
+                       libraries = ['tcl83'],
+                       library_dirs = ['/usr/local/lib'],
+                       sources = ['demo.c'])
+
+   setup (name = 'PackageName',
+          version = '1.0',
+          description = 'This is a demo package',
+          author = 'Martin v. Loewis',
+          author_email = 'martin@v.loewis.de',
+          url = 'http://www.python.org/doc/current/ext/building.html',
+          long_description = '''
+   This is really just a demo package.
+   ''',
+          ext_modules = [module1])
+
+
+In this example, :func:`setup` is called with additional meta-information, which
+is recommended when distribution packages have to be built. For the extension
+itself, it specifies preprocessor defines, include directories, library
+directories, and libraries. Depending on the compiler, distutils passes this
+information in different ways to the compiler. For example, on Unix, this may
+result in the compilation commands ::
+
+   gcc -DNDEBUG -g -O3 -Wall -Wstrict-prototypes -fPIC -DMAJOR_VERSION=1 -DMINOR_VERSION=0 -I/usr/local/include -I/usr/local/include/python2.2 -c demo.c -o build/temp.linux-i686-2.2/demo.o
+
+   gcc -shared build/temp.linux-i686-2.2/demo.o -L/usr/local/lib -ltcl83 -o build/lib.linux-i686-2.2/demo.so
+
+These lines are for demonstration purposes only; distutils users should trust
+that distutils gets the invocations right.
+
+
+.. _distributing:
+
+Distributing your extension modules
+===================================
+
+When an extension has been successfully build, there are three ways to use it.
+
+End-users will typically want to install the module, they do so by running ::
+
+   python setup.py install
+
+Module maintainers should produce source packages; to do so, they run ::
+
+   python setup.py sdist
+
+In some cases, additional files need to be included in a source distribution;
+this is done through a :file:`MANIFEST.in` file; see the distutils documentation
+for details.
+
+If the source distribution has been build successfully, maintainers can also
+create binary distributions. Depending on the platform, one of the following
+commands can be used to do so. ::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_wininst
+   python setup.py bdist_rpm
+   python setup.py bdist_dumb
+
diff --git a/Doc/extending/embedding.rst b/Doc/extending/embedding.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9a567c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/embedding.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _embedding:
+
+***************************************
+Embedding Python in Another Application
+***************************************
+
+The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to extend the
+functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions to it.  It is also
+possible to do it the other way around: enrich your C/C++ application by
+embedding Python in it.  Embedding provides your application with the ability to
+implement some of the functionality of your application in Python rather than C
+or C++. This can be used for many purposes; one example would be to allow users
+to tailor the application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python.  You
+can also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in Python
+more easily.
+
+Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite.  The difference is
+that when you extend Python, the main program of the application is still the
+Python interpreter, while if you embed Python, the main program may have nothing
+to do with Python --- instead, some parts of the application occasionally call
+the Python interpreter to run some Python code.
+
+So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program.  One of
+the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python interpreter.  At
+the very least, you have to call the function :cfunc:`Py_Initialize` (on Mac OS,
+call :cfunc:`PyMac_Initialize` instead).  There are optional calls to pass
+command line arguments to Python.  Then later you can call the interpreter from
+any part of the application.
+
+There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a string
+containing Python statements to :cfunc:`PyRun_SimpleString`, or you can pass a
+stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification in error messages only)
+to :cfunc:`PyRun_SimpleFile`.  You can also call the lower-level operations
+described in the previous chapters to construct and use Python objects.
+
+A simple demo of embedding Python can be found in the directory
+:file:`Demo/embed/` of the source distribution.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`c-api-index`
+      The details of Python's C interface are given in this manual. A great deal of
+      necessary information can be found here.
+
+
+.. _high-level-embedding:
+
+Very High Level Embedding
+=========================
+
+The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level
+interface. This interface is intended to execute a Python script without needing
+to interact with the application directly. This can for example be used to
+perform some operation on a file. ::
+
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+   int
+   main(int argc, char *argv[])
+   {
+     Py_Initialize();
+     PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
+                        "print 'Today is',ctime(time())\n");
+     Py_Finalize();
+     return 0;
+   }
+
+The above code first initializes the Python interpreter with
+:cfunc:`Py_Initialize`, followed by the execution of a hard-coded Python script
+that print the date and time.  Afterwards, the :cfunc:`Py_Finalize` call shuts
+the interpreter down, followed by the end of the program.  In a real program,
+you may want to get the Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor
+routine, a file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better
+be done by using the :cfunc:`PyRun_SimpleFile` function, which saves you the
+trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file contents.
+
+
+.. _lower-level-embedding:
+
+Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
+=============================================
+
+The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary pieces of
+Python code from your application, but exchanging data values is quite
+cumbersome to say the least. If you want that, you should use lower level calls.
+At the cost of having to write more C code, you can achieve almost anything.
+
+It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite the same
+activity, despite the different intent. Most topics discussed in the previous
+chapters are still valid. To show this, consider what the extension code from
+Python to C really does:
+
+#. Convert data values from Python to C,
+
+#. Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values, and
+
+#. Convert the data values from the call from C to Python.
+
+When embedding Python, the interface code does:
+
+#. Convert data values from C to Python,
+
+#. Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the converted
+   values, and
+
+#. Convert the data values from the call from Python to C.
+
+As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to accommodate the
+different direction of the cross-language transfer. The only difference is the
+routine that you call between both data conversions. When extending, you call a
+C routine, when embedding, you call a Python routine.
+
+This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and vice
+versa.  Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is assumed to be
+understood.  Since these aspects do not differ from extending the interpreter,
+you can refer to earlier chapters for the required information.
+
+
+.. _pure-embedding:
+
+Pure Embedding
+==============
+
+The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script. Like in the
+section about the very high level interface, the Python interpreter does not
+directly interact with the application (but that will change in the next
+section).
+
+The code to run a function defined in a Python script is:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/run-func.c
+
+
+This code loads a Python script using ``argv[1]``, and calls the function named
+in ``argv[2]``.  Its integer arguments are the other values of the ``argv``
+array.  If you compile and link this program (let's call the finished executable
+:program:`call`), and use it to execute a Python script, such as::
+
+   def multiply(a,b):
+       print "Will compute", a, "times", b
+       c = 0
+       for i in range(0, a):
+           c = c + b
+       return c
+
+then the result should be::
+
+   $ call multiply multiply 3 2
+   Will compute 3 times 2
+   Result of call: 6
+
+Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the code is
+for data conversion between Python and C, and for error reporting.  The
+interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts with
+
+.. % $
+
+::
+
+   Py_Initialize();
+   pName = PyString_FromString(argv[1]);
+   /* Error checking of pName left out */
+   pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
+
+After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using
+:cfunc:`PyImport_Import`.  This routine needs a Python string as its argument,
+which is constructed using the :cfunc:`PyString_FromString` data conversion
+routine. ::
+
+   pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
+   /* pFunc is a new reference */
+
+   if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
+       ...
+   }
+   Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
+
+Once the script is loaded, the name we're looking for is retrieved using
+:cfunc:`PyObject_GetAttrString`.  If the name exists, and the object returned is
+callable, you can safely assume that it is a function.  The program then
+proceeds by constructing a tuple of arguments as normal.  The call to the Python
+function is then made with::
+
+   pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
+
+Upon return of the function, ``pValue`` is either *NULL* or it contains a
+reference to the return value of the function.  Be sure to release the reference
+after examining the value.
+
+
+.. _extending-with-embedding:
+
+Extending Embedded Python
+=========================
+
+Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to functionality from
+the application itself.  The Python API allows this by extending the embedded
+interpreter.  That is, the embedded interpreter gets extended with routines
+provided by the application. While it sounds complex, it is not so bad.  Simply
+forget for a while that the application starts the Python interpreter.  Instead,
+consider the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code
+that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a normal
+Python extension.  For example::
+
+   static int numargs=0;
+
+   /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
+   static PyObject*
+   emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
+           return NULL;
+       return Py_BuildValue("i", numargs);
+   }
+
+   static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
+       {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
+   };
+
+Insert the above code just above the :cfunc:`main` function. Also, insert the
+following two statements directly after :cfunc:`Py_Initialize`::
+
+   numargs = argc;
+   Py_InitModule("emb", EmbMethods);
+
+These two lines initialize the ``numargs`` variable, and make the
+:func:`emb.numargs` function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
+With these extensions, the Python script can do things like ::
+
+   import emb
+   print "Number of arguments", emb.numargs()
+
+In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application to
+Python.
+
+.. % \section{For the future}
+.. % 
+.. % You don't happen to have a nice library to get textual
+.. % equivalents of numeric values do you :-) ?
+.. % Callbacks here ? (I may be using information from that section
+.. % ?!)
+.. % threads
+.. % code examples do not really behave well if errors happen
+.. % (what to watch out for)
+
+
+.. _embeddingincplusplus:
+
+Embedding Python in C++
+=======================
+
+It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this is done
+will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general you will need to
+write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler to compile and link your
+program.  There is no need to recompile Python itself using C++.
+
+
+.. _link-reqs:
+
+Linking Requirements
+====================
+
+While the :program:`configure` script shipped with the Python sources will
+correctly build Python to export the symbols needed by dynamically linked
+extensions, this is not automatically inherited by applications which embed the
+Python library statically, at least on Unix.  This is an issue when the
+application is linked to the static runtime library (:file:`libpython.a`) and
+needs to load dynamic extensions (implemented as :file:`.so` files).
+
+The problem is that some entry points are defined by the Python runtime solely
+for extension modules to use.  If the embedding application does not use any of
+these entry points, some linkers will not include those entries in the symbol
+table of the finished executable.  Some additional options are needed to inform
+the linker not to remove these symbols.
+
+Determining the right options to use for any given platform can be quite
+difficult, but fortunately the Python configuration already has those values.
+To retrieve them from an installed Python interpreter, start an interactive
+interpreter and have a short session like this::
+
+   >>> import distutils.sysconfig
+   >>> distutils.sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
+   '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'
+
+.. index:: module: distutils.sysconfig
+
+The contents of the string presented will be the options that should be used.
+If the string is empty, there's no need to add any additional options.  The
+:const:`LINKFORSHARED` definition corresponds to the variable of the same name
+in Python's top-level :file:`Makefile`.
+
diff --git a/Doc/extending/extending.rst b/Doc/extending/extending.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dff5b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/extending.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,1276 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _extending-intro:
+
+******************************
+Extending Python with C or C++
+******************************
+
+It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how to
+program in C.  Such :dfn:`extension modules` can do two things that can't be
+done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object types, and they
+can call C library functions and system calls.
+
+To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers Interface)
+defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide access to most
+aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is incorporated in a C
+source file by including the header ``"Python.h"``.
+
+The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as well as on
+your system setup; details are given in later chapters.
+
+
+.. _extending-simpleexample:
+
+A Simple Example
+================
+
+Let's create an extension module called ``spam`` (the favorite food of Monty
+Python fans...) and let's say we want to create a Python interface to the C
+library function :cfunc:`system`. [#]_ This function takes a null-terminated
+character string as argument and returns an integer.  We want this function to
+be callable from Python as follows::
+
+   >>> import spam
+   >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")
+
+Begin by creating a file :file:`spammodule.c`.  (Historically, if a module is
+called ``spam``, the C file containing its implementation is called
+:file:`spammodule.c`; if the module name is very long, like ``spammify``, the
+module name can be just :file:`spammify.c`.)
+
+The first line of our file can be::
+
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the purpose of
+the module and a copyright notice if you like).
+
+.. warning::
+
+   Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard
+   headers on some systems, you *must* include :file:`Python.h` before any standard
+   headers are included.
+
+All user-visible symbols defined by :file:`Python.h` have a prefix of ``Py`` or
+``PY``, except those defined in standard header files. For convenience, and
+since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter, ``"Python.h"``
+includes a few standard header files: ``<stdio.h>``, ``<string.h>``,
+``<errno.h>``, and ``<stdlib.h>``.  If the latter header file does not exist on
+your system, it declares the functions :cfunc:`malloc`, :cfunc:`free` and
+:cfunc:`realloc` directly.
+
+The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be called
+when the Python expression ``spam.system(string)`` is evaluated (we'll see
+shortly how it ends up being called)::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       const char *command;
+       int sts;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+           return NULL;
+       sts = system(command);
+       return Py_BuildValue("i", sts);
+   }
+
+There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python (for
+example, the single expression ``"ls -l"``) to the arguments passed to the C
+function.  The C function always has two arguments, conventionally named *self*
+and *args*.
+
+The *self* argument is only used when the C function implements a built-in
+method, not a function. In the example, *self* will always be a *NULL* pointer,
+since we are defining a function, not a method.  (This is done so that the
+interpreter doesn't have to understand two different types of C functions.)
+
+The *args* argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object containing the
+arguments.  Each item of the tuple corresponds to an argument in the call's
+argument list.  The arguments are Python objects --- in order to do anything
+with them in our C function we have to convert them to C values.  The function
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` in the Python API checks the argument types and
+converts them to C values.  It uses a template string to determine the required
+types of the arguments as well as the types of the C variables into which to
+store the converted values.  More about this later.
+
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` returns true (nonzero) if all arguments have the right
+type and its components have been stored in the variables whose addresses are
+passed.  It returns false (zero) if an invalid argument list was passed.  In the
+latter case it also raises an appropriate exception so the calling function can
+return *NULL* immediately (as we saw in the example).
+
+
+.. _extending-errors:
+
+Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
+=================================
+
+An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the following: when
+a function fails, it should set an exception condition and return an error value
+(usually a *NULL* pointer).  Exceptions are stored in a static global variable
+inside the interpreter; if this variable is *NULL* no exception has occurred.  A
+second global variable stores the "associated value" of the exception (the
+second argument to :keyword:`raise`).  A third variable contains the stack
+traceback in case the error originated in Python code.  These three variables
+are the C equivalents of the Python variables ``sys.exc_type``,
+``sys.exc_value`` and ``sys.exc_traceback`` (see the section on module
+:mod:`sys` in the Python Library Reference).  It is important to know about them
+to understand how errors are passed around.
+
+The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of exceptions.
+
+The most common one is :cfunc:`PyErr_SetString`.  Its arguments are an exception
+object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a predefined object like
+:cdata:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError`.  The C string indicates the cause of the error
+and is converted to a Python string object and stored as the "associated value"
+of the exception.
+
+Another useful function is :cfunc:`PyErr_SetFromErrno`, which only takes an
+exception argument and constructs the associated value by inspection of the
+global variable :cdata:`errno`.  The most general function is
+:cfunc:`PyErr_SetObject`, which takes two object arguments, the exception and
+its associated value.  You don't need to :cfunc:`Py_INCREF` the objects passed
+to any of these functions.
+
+You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
+:cfunc:`PyErr_Occurred`.  This returns the current exception object, or *NULL*
+if no exception has occurred.  You normally don't need to call
+:cfunc:`PyErr_Occurred` to see whether an error occurred in a function call,
+since you should be able to tell from the return value.
+
+When a function *f* that calls another function *g* detects that the latter
+fails, *f* should itself return an error value (usually *NULL* or ``-1``).  It
+should *not* call one of the :cfunc:`PyErr_\*` functions --- one has already
+been called by *g*. *f*'s caller is then supposed to also return an error
+indication to *its* caller, again *without* calling :cfunc:`PyErr_\*`, and so on
+--- the most detailed cause of the error was already reported by the function
+that first detected it.  Once the error reaches the Python interpreter's main
+loop, this aborts the currently executing Python code and tries to find an
+exception handler specified by the Python programmer.
+
+(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed error
+message by calling another :cfunc:`PyErr_\*` function, and in such cases it is
+fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary, and can cause
+information about the cause of the error to be lost: most operations can fail
+for a variety of reasons.)
+
+To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
+condition must be cleared explicitly by calling :cfunc:`PyErr_Clear`.  The only
+time C code should call :cfunc:`PyErr_Clear` is if it doesn't want to pass the
+error on to the interpreter but wants to handle it completely by itself
+(possibly by trying something else, or pretending nothing went wrong).
+
+Every failing :cfunc:`malloc` call must be turned into an exception --- the
+direct caller of :cfunc:`malloc` (or :cfunc:`realloc`) must call
+:cfunc:`PyErr_NoMemory` and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
+object-creating functions (for example, :cfunc:`PyInt_FromLong`) already do
+this, so this note is only relevant to those who call :cfunc:`malloc` directly.
+
+Also note that, with the important exception of :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` and
+friends, functions that return an integer status usually return a positive value
+or zero for success and ``-1`` for failure, like Unix system calls.
+
+Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making :cfunc:`Py_XDECREF` or
+:cfunc:`Py_DECREF` calls for objects you have already created) when you return
+an error indicator!
+
+The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are predeclared
+C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions, such as
+:cdata:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError`, which you can use directly. Of course, you
+should choose exceptions wisely --- don't use :cdata:`PyExc_TypeError` to mean
+that a file couldn't be opened (that should probably be :cdata:`PyExc_IOError`).
+If something's wrong with the argument list, the :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`
+function usually raises :cdata:`PyExc_TypeError`.  If you have an argument whose
+value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions,
+:cdata:`PyExc_ValueError` is appropriate.
+
+You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. For this, you
+usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of your file::
+
+   static PyObject *SpamError;
+
+and initialize it in your module's initialization function (:cfunc:`initspam`)
+with an exception object (leaving out the error checking for now)::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   initspam(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+
+       m = Py_InitModule("spam", SpamMethods);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return;
+
+       SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
+       Py_INCREF(SpamError);
+       PyModule_AddObject(m, "error", SpamError);
+   }
+
+Note that the Python name for the exception object is :exc:`spam.error`.  The
+:cfunc:`PyErr_NewException` function may create a class with the base class
+being :exc:`Exception` (unless another class is passed in instead of *NULL*),
+described in :ref:`bltin-exceptions`.
+
+Note also that the :cdata:`SpamError` variable retains a reference to the newly
+created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could be
+removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the class is
+needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing :cdata:`SpamError` to
+become a dangling pointer. Should it become a dangling pointer, C code which
+raises the exception could cause a core dump or other unintended side effects.
+
+We discuss the use of PyMODINIT_FUNC as a function return type later in this
+sample.
+
+
+.. _backtoexample:
+
+Back to the Example
+===================
+
+Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand this
+statement::
+
+   if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+       return NULL;
+
+It returns *NULL* (the error indicator for functions returning object pointers)
+if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the exception set by
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.  Otherwise the string value of the argument has been
+copied to the local variable :cdata:`command`.  This is a pointer assignment and
+you are not supposed to modify the string to which it points (so in Standard C,
+the variable :cdata:`command` should properly be declared as ``const char
+*command``).
+
+The next statement is a call to the Unix function :cfunc:`system`, passing it
+the string we just got from :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`::
+
+   sts = system(command);
+
+Our :func:`spam.system` function must return the value of :cdata:`sts` as a
+Python object.  This is done using the function :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue`, which is
+something like the inverse of :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`: it takes a format
+string and an arbitrary number of C values, and returns a new Python object.
+More info on :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` is given later. ::
+
+   return Py_BuildValue("i", sts);
+
+In this case, it will return an integer object.  (Yes, even integers are objects
+on the heap in Python!)
+
+If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function returning
+:ctype:`void`), the corresponding Python function must return ``None``.   You
+need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the :cmacro:`Py_RETURN_NONE`
+macro)::
+
+   Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+   return Py_None;
+
+:cdata:`Py_None` is the C name for the special Python object ``None``.  It is a
+genuine Python object rather than a *NULL* pointer, which means "error" in most
+contexts, as we have seen.
+
+
+.. _methodtable:
+
+The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function
+=====================================================
+
+I promised to show how :cfunc:`spam_system` is called from Python programs.
+First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table"::
+
+   static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
+       ...
+       {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Execute a shell command."},
+       ...
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+Note the third entry (``METH_VARARGS``).  This is a flag telling the interpreter
+the calling convention to be used for the C function.  It should normally always
+be ``METH_VARARGS`` or ``METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS``; a value of ``0`` means
+that an obsolete variant of :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` is used.
+
+When using only ``METH_VARARGS``, the function should expect the Python-level
+parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for parsing via
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`; more information on this function is provided below.
+
+The :const:`METH_KEYWORDS` bit may be set in the third field if keyword
+arguments should be passed to the function.  In this case, the C function should
+accept a third ``PyObject *`` parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords.
+Use :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` to parse the arguments to such a
+function.
+
+The method table must be passed to the interpreter in the module's
+initialization function.  The initialization function must be named
+:cfunc:`initname`, where *name* is the name of the module, and should be the
+only non-\ :keyword:`static` item defined in the module file::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   initspam(void)
+   {
+       (void) Py_InitModule("spam", SpamMethods);
+   }
+
+Note that PyMODINIT_FUNC declares the function as ``void`` return type,
+declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for  C++
+declares the function as ``extern "C"``.
+
+When the Python program imports module :mod:`spam` for the first time,
+:cfunc:`initspam` is called. (See below for comments about embedding Python.)
+It calls :cfunc:`Py_InitModule`, which creates a "module object" (which is
+inserted in the dictionary ``sys.modules`` under the key ``"spam"``), and
+inserts built-in function objects into the newly created module based upon the
+table (an array of :ctype:`PyMethodDef` structures) that was passed as its
+second argument. :cfunc:`Py_InitModule` returns a pointer to the module object
+that it creates (which is unused here).  It may abort with a fatal error for
+certain errors, or return *NULL* if the module could not be initialized
+satisfactorily.
+
+When embedding Python, the :cfunc:`initspam` function is not called
+automatically unless there's an entry in the :cdata:`_PyImport_Inittab` table.
+The easiest way to handle this is to statically initialize your
+statically-linked modules by directly calling :cfunc:`initspam` after the call
+to :cfunc:`Py_Initialize`::
+
+   int
+   main(int argc, char *argv[])
+   {
+       /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
+       Py_SetProgramName(argv[0]);
+
+       /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required. */
+       Py_Initialize();
+
+       /* Add a static module */
+       initspam();
+
+An example may be found in the file :file:`Demo/embed/demo.c` in the Python
+source distribution.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Removing entries from ``sys.modules`` or importing compiled modules into
+   multiple interpreters within a process (or following a :cfunc:`fork` without an
+   intervening :cfunc:`exec`) can create problems for some extension modules.
+   Extension module authors should exercise caution when initializing internal data
+   structures. Note also that the :func:`reload` function can be used with
+   extension modules, and will call the module initialization function
+   (:cfunc:`initspam` in the example), but will not load the module again if it was
+   loaded from a dynamically loadable object file (:file:`.so` on Unix,
+   :file:`.dll` on Windows).
+
+A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution
+as :file:`Modules/xxmodule.c`.  This file may be used as a  template or simply
+read as an example.  The :program:`modulator.py` script included in the source
+distribution or Windows install provides  a simple graphical user interface for
+declaring the functions and objects which a module should implement, and can
+generate a template which can be filled in.  The script lives in the
+:file:`Tools/modulator/` directory; see the :file:`README` file there for more
+information.
+
+
+.. _compilation:
+
+Compilation and Linkage
+=======================
+
+There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension: compiling
+and linking it with the Python system.  If you use dynamic loading, the details
+may depend on the style of dynamic loading your system uses; see the chapters
+about building extension modules (chapter :ref:`building`) and additional
+information that pertains only to building on Windows (chapter
+:ref:`building-on-windows`) for more information about this.
+
+If you can't use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a permanent
+part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the configuration setup
+and rebuild the interpreter.  Luckily, this is very simple on Unix: just place
+your file (:file:`spammodule.c` for example) in the :file:`Modules/` directory
+of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to the file
+:file:`Modules/Setup.local` describing your file::
+
+   spam spammodule.o
+
+and rebuild the interpreter by running :program:`make` in the toplevel
+directory.  You can also run :program:`make` in the :file:`Modules/`
+subdirectory, but then you must first rebuild :file:`Makefile` there by running
+':program:`make` Makefile'.  (This is necessary each time you change the
+:file:`Setup` file.)
+
+If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be listed
+on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance::
+
+   spam spammodule.o -lX11
+
+
+.. _callingpython:
+
+Calling Python Functions from C
+===============================
+
+So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.  The
+reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is especially the
+case for libraries that support so-called "callback" functions.  If a C
+interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent Python often needs to provide a
+callback mechanism to the Python programmer; the implementation will require
+calling the Python callback functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also
+imaginable.
+
+Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and there is a
+standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won't dwell on how to call the
+Python parser with a particular string as input --- if you're interested, have a
+look at the implementation of the :option:`-c` command line option in
+:file:`Python/pythonmain.c` from the Python source code.)
+
+Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must somehow pass
+you the Python function object.  You should provide a function (or some other
+interface) to do this.  When this function is called, save a pointer to the
+Python function object (be careful to :cfunc:`Py_INCREF` it!) in a global
+variable --- or wherever you see fit. For example, the following function might
+be part of a module definition::
+
+   static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;
+
+   static PyObject *
+   my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       PyObject *result = NULL;
+       PyObject *temp;
+
+       if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
+           if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
+               PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
+               return NULL;
+           }
+           Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
+           Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
+           my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
+           /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
+           Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+           result = Py_None;
+       }
+       return result;
+   }
+
+This function must be registered with the interpreter using the
+:const:`METH_VARARGS` flag; this is described in section :ref:`methodtable`.  The
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function and its arguments are documented in section
+:ref:`parsetuple`.
+
+The macros :cfunc:`Py_XINCREF` and :cfunc:`Py_XDECREF` increment/decrement the
+reference count of an object and are safe in the presence of *NULL* pointers
+(but note that *temp* will not be  *NULL* in this context).  More info on them
+in section :ref:`refcounts`.
+
+.. index:: single: PyEval_CallObject()
+
+Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
+:cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject`.  This function has two arguments, both pointers to
+arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the argument list.  The
+argument list must always be a tuple object, whose length is the number of
+arguments.  To call the Python function with no arguments, pass an empty tuple;
+to call it with one argument, pass a singleton tuple. :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue`
+returns a tuple when its format string consists of zero or more format codes
+between parentheses.  For example::
+
+   int arg;
+   PyObject *arglist;
+   PyObject *result;
+   ...
+   arg = 123;
+   ...
+   /* Time to call the callback */
+   arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
+   result = PyEval_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+   Py_DECREF(arglist);
+
+:cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` returns a Python object pointer: this is the return
+value of the Python function.  :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is
+"reference-count-neutral" with respect to its arguments.  In the example a new
+tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is :cfunc:`Py_DECREF`\
+-ed immediately after the call.
+
+The return value of :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is "new": either it is a brand
+new object, or it is an existing object whose reference count has been
+incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global variable, you should
+somehow :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` the result, even (especially!) if you are not
+interested in its value.
+
+Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return value
+isn't *NULL*.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising an exception.
+If the C code that called :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is called from Python, it
+should now return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter
+can print a stack trace, or the calling Python code can handle the exception.
+If this is not possible or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling
+:cfunc:`PyErr_Clear`.  For example::
+
+   if (result == NULL)
+       return NULL; /* Pass error back */
+   ...use result...
+   Py_DECREF(result); 
+
+Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you may also
+have to provide an argument list to :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject`.  In some cases
+the argument list is also provided by the Python program, through the same
+interface that specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used
+in the same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
+construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to do this
+is to call :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue`.  For example, if you want to pass an integral
+event code, you might use the following code::
+
+   PyObject *arglist;
+   ...
+   arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
+   result = PyEval_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+   Py_DECREF(arglist);
+   if (result == NULL)
+       return NULL; /* Pass error back */
+   /* Here maybe use the result */
+   Py_DECREF(result);
+
+Note the placement of ``Py_DECREF(arglist)`` immediately after the call, before
+the error check!  Also note that strictly spoken this code is not complete:
+:cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` may run out of memory, and this should be checked.
+
+
+.. _parsetuple:
+
+Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
+============================================
+
+.. index:: single: PyArg_ParseTuple()
+
+The :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function is declared as follows::
+
+   int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, char *format, ...);
+
+The *arg* argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list passed
+from Python to a C function.  The *format* argument must be a format string,
+whose syntax is explained in :ref:`arg-parsing` in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual.  The remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is
+determined by the format string.
+
+Note that while :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` checks that the Python arguments have
+the required types, it cannot check the validity of the addresses of C variables
+passed to the call: if you make mistakes there, your code will probably crash or
+at least overwrite random bits in memory.  So be careful!
+
+Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are
+*borrowed* references; do not decrement their reference count!
+
+Some example calls::
+
+   int ok;
+   int i, j;
+   long k, l;
+   const char *s;
+   int size;
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
+       /* Python call: f() */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
+       /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
+       /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
+       /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
+       /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */
+
+::
+
+   {
+       const char *file;
+       const char *mode = "r";
+       int bufsize = 0;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
+       /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
+       /* Possible Python calls:
+          f('spam')
+          f('spam', 'w')
+          f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
+   }
+
+::
+
+   {
+       int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
+                &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
+       /* A rectangle and a point */
+       /* Possible Python call:
+          f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
+   }
+
+::
+
+   {
+       Py_complex c;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
+       /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
+       /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
+   }
+
+
+.. _parsetupleandkeywords:
+
+Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
+==========================================
+
+.. index:: single: PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()
+
+The :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` function is declared as follows::
+
+   int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
+                                   char *format, char *kwlist[], ...);
+
+The *arg* and *format* parameters are identical to those of the
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function.  The *kwdict* parameter is the dictionary of
+keywords received as the third parameter from the Python runtime.  The *kwlist*
+parameter is a *NULL*-terminated list of strings which identify the parameters;
+the names are matched with the type information from *format* from left to
+right.  On success, :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` returns true, otherwise
+it returns false and raises an appropriate exception.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments!  Keyword parameters
+   passed in which are not present in the *kwlist* will cause :exc:`TypeError` to
+   be raised.
+
+.. index:: single: Philbrick, Geoff
+
+Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by Geoff
+Philbrick (philbrick@hks.com):
+
+.. % 
+
+::
+
+   #include "Python.h"
+
+   static PyObject *
+   keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
+   {  
+       int voltage;
+       char *state = "a stiff";
+       char *action = "voom";
+       char *type = "Norwegian Blue";
+
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist, 
+                                        &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
+           return NULL; 
+
+       printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n", 
+              action, voltage);
+       printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);
+
+       Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+
+       return Py_None;
+   }
+
+   static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
+       /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
+        * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
+        * three.
+        */
+       {"parrot", (PyCFunction)keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
+        "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
+   };
+
+::
+
+   void
+   initkeywdarg(void)
+   {
+     /* Create the module and add the functions */
+     Py_InitModule("keywdarg", keywdarg_methods);
+   }
+
+
+.. _buildvalue:
+
+Building Arbitrary Values
+=========================
+
+This function is the counterpart to :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.  It is declared
+as follows::
+
+   PyObject *Py_BuildValue(char *format, ...);
+
+It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
+:cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`, but the arguments (which are input to the function,
+not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a new Python object,
+suitable for returning from a C function called from Python.
+
+One difference with :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`: while the latter requires its
+first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists are always represented
+as tuples internally), :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` does not always build a tuple.  It
+builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If
+the format string is empty, it returns ``None``; if it contains exactly one
+format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To
+force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.
+
+Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python value)::
+
+   Py_BuildValue("")                        None
+   Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
+   Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
+   Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
+   Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
+   Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
+   Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
+   Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
+   Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
+   Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
+   Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
+   Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
+                 "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
+   Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
+                 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))
+
+
+.. _refcounts:
+
+Reference Counts
+================
+
+In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic allocation
+and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done using the functions
+:cfunc:`malloc` and :cfunc:`free`.  In C++, the operators :keyword:`new` and
+:keyword:`delete` are used with essentially the same meaning and we'll restrict
+the following discussion to the C case.
+
+Every block of memory allocated with :cfunc:`malloc` should eventually be
+returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to :cfunc:`free`.
+It is important to call :cfunc:`free` at the right time.  If a block's address
+is forgotten but :cfunc:`free` is not called for it, the memory it occupies
+cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This is called a :dfn:`memory
+leak`.  On the other hand, if a program calls :cfunc:`free` for a block and then
+continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with re-use of the block
+through another :cfunc:`malloc` call.  This is called :dfn:`using freed memory`.
+It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data --- core
+dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes.
+
+Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For instance,
+a function may allocate a block of memory, do some calculation, and then free
+the block again.  Now a change in the requirements for the function may add a
+test to the calculation that detects an error condition and can return
+prematurely from the function.  It's easy to forget to free the allocated memory
+block when taking this premature exit, especially when it is added later to the
+code.  Such leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the
+error exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
+machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes apparent in a
+long-running process that uses the leaking function frequently.  Therefore, it's
+important to prevent leaks from happening by having a coding convention or
+strategy that minimizes this kind of errors.
+
+Since Python makes heavy use of :cfunc:`malloc` and :cfunc:`free`, it needs a
+strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The chosen
+method is called :dfn:`reference counting`.  The principle is simple: every
+object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference to the object
+is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a reference to it is deleted.
+When the counter reaches zero, the last reference to the object has been deleted
+and the object is freed.
+
+An alternative strategy is called :dfn:`automatic garbage collection`.
+(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage collection
+strategy, hence my use of "automatic" to distinguish the two.)  The big
+advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the user doesn't need to call
+:cfunc:`free` explicitly.  (Another claimed advantage is an improvement in speed
+or memory usage --- this is no hard fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for
+C, there is no truly portable automatic garbage collector, while reference
+counting can be implemented portably (as long as the functions :cfunc:`malloc`
+and :cfunc:`free` are available --- which the C Standard guarantees). Maybe some
+day a sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for C.
+Until then, we'll have to live with reference counts.
+
+While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it also
+offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.  This allows
+applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect circular references;
+these are the weakness of garbage collection implemented using only reference
+counting.  Reference cycles consist of objects which contain (possibly indirect)
+references to themselves, so that each object in the cycle has a reference count
+which is non-zero.  Typical reference counting implementations are not able to
+reclaim the memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced
+from the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
+the cycle itself.
+
+The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim them so long
+as there are no finalizers implemented in Python (:meth:`__del__` methods).
+When there are such finalizers, the detector exposes the cycles through the
+:mod:`gc` module (specifically, the
+``garbage`` variable in that module).  The :mod:`gc` module also exposes a way
+to run the detector (the :func:`collect` function), as well as configuration
+interfaces and the ability to disable the detector at runtime.  The cycle
+detector is considered an optional component; though it is included by default,
+it can be disabled at build time using the :option:`--without-cycle-gc` option
+to the :program:`configure` script on Unix platforms (including Mac OS X) or by
+removing the definition of ``WITH_CYCLE_GC`` in the :file:`pyconfig.h` header on
+other platforms.  If the cycle detector is disabled in this way, the :mod:`gc`
+module will not be available.
+
+
+.. _refcountsinpython:
+
+Reference Counting in Python
+----------------------------
+
+There are two macros, ``Py_INCREF(x)`` and ``Py_DECREF(x)``, which handle the
+incrementing and decrementing of the reference count. :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` also
+frees the object when the count reaches zero. For flexibility, it doesn't call
+:cfunc:`free` directly --- rather, it makes a call through a function pointer in
+the object's :dfn:`type object`.  For this purpose (and others), every object
+also contains a pointer to its type object.
+
+The big question now remains: when to use ``Py_INCREF(x)`` and ``Py_DECREF(x)``?
+Let's first introduce some terms.  Nobody "owns" an object; however, you can
+:dfn:`own a reference` to an object.  An object's reference count is now defined
+as the number of owned references to it.  The owner of a reference is
+responsible for calling :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` when the reference is no longer
+needed.  Ownership of a reference can be transferred.  There are three ways to
+dispose of an owned reference: pass it on, store it, or call :cfunc:`Py_DECREF`.
+Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.
+
+It is also possible to :dfn:`borrow` [#]_ a reference to an object.  The
+borrower of a reference should not call :cfunc:`Py_DECREF`.  The borrower must
+not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which it was borrowed.
+Using a borrowed reference after the owner has disposed of it risks using freed
+memory and should be avoided completely. [#]_
+
+The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don't need to
+take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths through the code
+--- in other words, with a borrowed reference you don't run the risk of leaking
+when a premature exit is taken.  The disadvantage of borrowing over leaking is
+that there are some subtle situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed
+reference can be used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact
+disposed of it.
+
+A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
+:cfunc:`Py_INCREF`.  This does not affect the status of the owner from which the
+reference was borrowed --- it creates a new owned reference, and gives full
+owner responsibilities (the new owner must dispose of the reference properly, as
+well as the previous owner).
+
+
+.. _ownershiprules:
+
+Ownership Rules
+---------------
+
+Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is part of
+the function's interface specification whether ownership is transferred with the
+reference or not.
+
+Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership with the
+reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is to create a new
+object, such as :cfunc:`PyInt_FromLong` and :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue`, pass
+ownership to the receiver.  Even if the object is not actually new, you still
+receive ownership of a new reference to that object.  For instance,
+:cfunc:`PyInt_FromLong` maintains a cache of popular values and can return a
+reference to a cached item.
+
+Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer ownership
+with the reference, for instance :cfunc:`PyObject_GetAttrString`.  The picture
+is less clear, here, however, since a few common routines are exceptions:
+:cfunc:`PyTuple_GetItem`, :cfunc:`PyList_GetItem`, :cfunc:`PyDict_GetItem`, and
+:cfunc:`PyDict_GetItemString` all return references that you borrow from the
+tuple, list or dictionary.
+
+The function :cfunc:`PyImport_AddModule` also returns a borrowed reference, even
+though it may actually create the object it returns: this is possible because an
+owned reference to the object is stored in ``sys.modules``.
+
+When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
+function borrows the reference from you --- if it needs to store it, it will use
+:cfunc:`Py_INCREF` to become an independent owner.  There are exactly two
+important exceptions to this rule: :cfunc:`PyTuple_SetItem` and
+:cfunc:`PyList_SetItem`.  These functions take over ownership of the item passed
+to them --- even if they fail!  (Note that :cfunc:`PyDict_SetItem` and friends
+don't take over ownership --- they are "normal.")
+
+When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its arguments
+from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object, so the borrowed
+reference's lifetime is guaranteed until the function returns.  Only when such a
+borrowed reference must be stored or passed on, it must be turned into an owned
+reference by calling :cfunc:`Py_INCREF`.
+
+The object reference returned from a C function that is called from Python must
+be an owned reference --- ownership is transferred from the function to its
+caller.
+
+
+.. _thinice:
+
+Thin Ice
+--------
+
+There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed reference
+can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit invocations of the
+interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference to dispose of it.
+
+The first and most important case to know about is using :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` on
+an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to a list item.  For instance::
+
+   void
+   bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+
+       PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyInt_FromLong(0L));
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
+   }
+
+This function first borrows a reference to ``list[0]``, then replaces
+``list[1]`` with the value ``0``, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
+Looks harmless, right?  But it's not!
+
+Let's follow the control flow into :cfunc:`PyList_SetItem`.  The list owns
+references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of
+the original item 1.  Now let's suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a
+user-defined class, and let's further suppose that the class defined a
+:meth:`__del__` method.  If this class instance has a reference count of 1,
+disposing of it will call its :meth:`__del__` method.
+
+Since it is written in Python, the :meth:`__del__` method can execute arbitrary
+Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to
+``item`` in :cfunc:`bug`?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed into
+:cfunc:`bug` is accessible to the :meth:`__del__` method, it could execute a
+statement to the effect of ``del list[0]``, and assuming this was the last
+reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it, thereby
+invalidating ``item``.
+
+The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy: temporarily
+increment the reference count.  The correct version of the function reads::
+
+   void
+   no_bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+
+       Py_INCREF(item);
+       PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyInt_FromLong(0L));
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
+       Py_DECREF(item);
+   }
+
+This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of this bug
+and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger to figure out
+why his :meth:`__del__` methods would fail...
+
+The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving
+threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can't get in each
+other's way, because there is a global lock protecting Python's entire object
+space.  However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro
+:cmacro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS`, and to re-acquire it using
+:cmacro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`.  This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
+let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete.
+Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the previous one::
+
+   void
+   bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+       Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
+       ...some blocking I/O call...
+       Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
+   }
+
+
+.. _nullpointers:
+
+NULL Pointers
+-------------
+
+In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not expect you
+to pass them *NULL* pointers, and will dump core (or cause later core dumps) if
+you do so.  Functions that return object references generally return *NULL* only
+to indicate that an exception occurred.  The reason for not testing for *NULL*
+arguments is that functions often pass the objects they receive on to other
+function --- if each function were to test for *NULL*, there would be a lot of
+redundant tests and the code would run more slowly.
+
+It is better to test for *NULL* only at the "source:" when a pointer that may be
+*NULL* is received, for example, from :cfunc:`malloc` or from a function that
+may raise an exception.
+
+The macros :cfunc:`Py_INCREF` and :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` do not check for *NULL*
+pointers --- however, their variants :cfunc:`Py_XINCREF` and :cfunc:`Py_XDECREF`
+do.
+
+The macros for checking for a particular object type (``Pytype_Check()``) don't
+check for *NULL* pointers --- again, there is much code that calls several of
+these in a row to test an object against various different expected types, and
+this would generate redundant tests.  There are no variants with *NULL*
+checking.
+
+The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list passed to C
+functions (``args`` in the examples) is never *NULL* --- in fact it guarantees
+that it is always a tuple. [#]_
+
+It is a severe error to ever let a *NULL* pointer "escape" to the Python user.
+
+.. % Frank Stajano:
+.. % A pedagogically buggy example, along the lines of the previous listing,
+.. % would be helpful here -- showing in more concrete terms what sort of
+.. % actions could cause the problem. I can't very well imagine it from the
+.. % description.
+
+
+.. _cplusplus:
+
+Writing Extensions in C++
+=========================
+
+It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions apply.  If
+the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and linked by the C
+compiler, global or static objects with constructors cannot be used.  This is
+not a problem if the main program is linked by the C++ compiler.  Functions that
+will be called by the Python interpreter (in particular, module initialization
+functions) have to be declared using ``extern "C"``. It is unnecessary to
+enclose the Python header files in ``extern "C" {...}`` --- they use this form
+already if the symbol ``__cplusplus`` is defined (all recent C++ compilers
+define this symbol).
+
+
+.. _using-cobjects:
+
+Providing a C API for an Extension Module
+=========================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Konrad Hinsen <hinsen@cnrs-orleans.fr>
+
+
+Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used from
+Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful for other
+extension modules. For example, an extension module could implement a type
+"collection" which works like lists without order. Just like the standard Python
+list type has a C API which permits extension modules to create and manipulate
+lists, this new collection type should have a set of C functions for direct
+manipulation from other extension modules.
+
+At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without declaring them
+:keyword:`static`, of course), provide an appropriate header file, and document
+the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension modules were always
+linked statically with the Python interpreter. When modules are used as shared
+libraries, however, the symbols defined in one module may not be visible to
+another module. The details of visibility depend on the operating system; some
+systems use one global namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension
+modules (Windows, for example), whereas others require an explicit list of
+imported symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
+different strategies (most Unices). And even if symbols are globally visible,
+the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have been loaded yet!
+
+Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
+visibility. This means that all symbols in extension modules should be declared
+:keyword:`static`, except for the module's initialization function, in order to
+avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed in section
+:ref:`methodtable`). And it means that symbols that *should* be accessible from
+other extension modules must be exported in a different way.
+
+Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information (pointers) from
+one extension module to another one: CObjects. A CObject is a Python data type
+which stores a pointer (:ctype:`void \*`).  CObjects can only be created and
+accessed via their C API, but they can be passed around like any other Python
+object. In particular,  they can be assigned to a name in an extension module's
+namespace. Other extension modules can then import this module, retrieve the
+value of this name, and then retrieve the pointer from the CObject.
+
+There are many ways in which CObjects can be used to export the C API of an
+extension module. Each name could get its own CObject, or all C API pointers
+could be stored in an array whose address is published in a CObject. And the
+various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers can be distributed in
+different ways between the module providing the code and the client modules.
+
+The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the burden on
+the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for commonly used
+library modules. It stores all C API pointers (just one in the example!) in an
+array of :ctype:`void` pointers which becomes the value of a CObject. The header
+file corresponding to the module provides a macro that takes care of importing
+the module and retrieving its C API pointers; client modules only have to call
+this macro before accessing the C API.
+
+The exporting module is a modification of the :mod:`spam` module from section
+:ref:`extending-simpleexample`. The function :func:`spam.system` does not call
+the C library function :cfunc:`system` directly, but a function
+:cfunc:`PySpam_System`, which would of course do something more complicated in
+reality (such as adding "spam" to every command). This function
+:cfunc:`PySpam_System` is also exported to other extension modules.
+
+The function :cfunc:`PySpam_System` is a plain C function, declared
+:keyword:`static` like everything else::
+
+   static int
+   PySpam_System(const char *command)
+   {
+       return system(command);
+   }
+
+The function :cfunc:`spam_system` is modified in a trivial way::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       const char *command;
+       int sts;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+           return NULL;
+       sts = PySpam_System(command);
+       return Py_BuildValue("i", sts);
+   }
+
+In the beginning of the module, right after the line ::
+
+   #include "Python.h"
+
+two more lines must be added::
+
+   #define SPAM_MODULE
+   #include "spammodule.h"
+
+The ``#define`` is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the
+exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module's initialization
+function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   initspam(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+       static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
+       PyObject *c_api_object;
+
+       m = Py_InitModule("spam", SpamMethods);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return;
+
+       /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
+       PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;
+
+       /* Create a CObject containing the API pointer array's address */
+       c_api_object = PyCObject_FromVoidPtr((void *)PySpam_API, NULL);
+
+       if (c_api_object != NULL)
+           PyModule_AddObject(m, "_C_API", c_api_object);
+   }
+
+Note that ``PySpam_API`` is declared :keyword:`static`; otherwise the pointer
+array would disappear when :func:`initspam` terminates!
+
+The bulk of the work is in the header file :file:`spammodule.h`, which looks
+like this::
+
+   #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
+   #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
+   #ifdef __cplusplus
+   extern "C" {
+   #endif
+
+   /* Header file for spammodule */
+
+   /* C API functions */
+   #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
+   #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
+   #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)
+
+   /* Total number of C API pointers */
+   #define PySpam_API_pointers 1
+
+
+   #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
+   /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */
+
+   static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;
+
+   #else
+   /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */
+
+   static void **PySpam_API;
+
+   #define PySpam_System \
+    (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])
+
+   /* Return -1 and set exception on error, 0 on success. */
+   static int
+   import_spam(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *module = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
+
+       if (module != NULL) {
+           PyObject *c_api_object = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "_C_API");
+           if (c_api_object == NULL)
+               return -1;
+           if (PyCObject_Check(c_api_object))
+               PySpam_API = (void **)PyCObject_AsVoidPtr(c_api_object);
+           Py_DECREF(c_api_object);
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+   #endif
+
+   #ifdef __cplusplus
+   }
+   #endif
+
+   #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */
+
+All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
+:cfunc:`PySpam_System` is to call the function (or rather macro)
+:cfunc:`import_spam` in its initialization function::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   initclient(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+
+       m = Py_InitModule("client", ClientMethods);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return;
+       if (import_spam() < 0)
+           return;
+       /* additional initialization can happen here */
+   }
+
+The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file :file:`spammodule.h` is
+rather complicated. However, the basic structure is the same for each function
+that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.
+
+Finally it should be mentioned that CObjects offer additional functionality,
+which is especially useful for memory allocation and deallocation of the pointer
+stored in a CObject. The details are described in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual in the section :ref:`cobjects` and in the implementation of CObjects (files
+:file:`Include/cobject.h` and :file:`Objects/cobject.c` in the Python source
+code distribution).
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] An interface for this function already exists in the standard module :mod:`os`
+   --- it was chosen as a simple and straightforward example.
+
+.. [#] The metaphor of "borrowing" a reference is not completely correct: the owner
+   still has a copy of the reference.
+
+.. [#] Checking that the reference count is at least 1 **does not work** --- the
+   reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be reused for
+   another object!
+
+.. [#] These guarantees don't hold when you use the "old" style calling convention ---
+   this is still found in much existing code.
+
diff --git a/Doc/extending/index.rst b/Doc/extending/index.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e8cf79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/index.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+.. _extending-index:
+
+##################################################
+  Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
+##################################################
+
+:Release: |version|
+:Date: |today|
+
+This document describes how to write modules in C or C++ to extend the Python
+interpreter with new modules.  Those modules can define new functions but also
+new object types and their methods.  The document also describes how to embed
+the Python interpreter in another application, for use as an extension language.
+Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension modules so that they can be
+loaded dynamically (at run time) into the interpreter, if the underlying
+operating system supports this feature.
+
+This document assumes basic knowledge about Python.  For an informal
+introduction to the language, see :ref:`tutorial-index`.  :ref:`reference-index`
+gives a more formal definition of the language.  :ref:`library-index` documents
+the existing object types, functions and modules (both built-in and written in
+Python) that give the language its wide application range.
+
+For a detailed description of the whole Python/C API, see the separate
+:ref:`c-api-index`.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+
+   extending.rst
+   newtypes.rst
+   building.rst
+   windows.rst
+   embedding.rst
diff --git a/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a53579
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,1587 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _defining-new-types:
+
+******************
+Defining New Types
+******************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Michael Hudson <mwh@python.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Dave Kuhlman <dkuhlman@rexx.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Jim Fulton <jim@zope.com>
+
+
+As mentioned in the last chapter, Python allows the writer of an extension
+module to define new types that can be manipulated from Python code, much like
+strings and lists in core Python.
+
+This is not hard; the code for all extension types follows a pattern, but there
+are some details that you need to understand before you can get started.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The way new types are defined changed dramatically (and for the better) in
+   Python 2.2.  This document documents how to define new types for Python 2.2 and
+   later.  If you need to support older versions of Python, you will need to refer
+   to `older versions of this documentation
+   <http://www.python.org/doc/versions/>`_.
+
+
+.. _dnt-basics:
+
+The Basics
+==========
+
+The Python runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type
+:ctype:`PyObject\*`.  A :ctype:`PyObject` is not a very magnificent object - it
+just contains the refcount and a pointer to the object's "type object".  This is
+where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions get called
+when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up on an object or it is multiplied
+by another object.  These C functions are called "type methods" to distinguish
+them from things like ``[].append`` (which we call "object methods").
+
+So, if you want to define a new object type, you need to create a new type
+object.
+
+This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a minimal, but
+complete, module that defines a new type:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/noddy.c
+
+
+Now that's quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem familiar
+from the last chapter.
+
+The first bit that will be new is::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+   } noddy_NoddyObject;
+
+This is what a Noddy object will contain---in this case, nothing more than every
+Python object contains, namely a refcount and a pointer to a type object.  These
+are the fields the ``PyObject_HEAD`` macro brings in.  The reason for the macro
+is to standardize the layout and to enable special debugging fields in debug
+builds.  Note that there is no semicolon after the ``PyObject_HEAD`` macro; one
+is included in the macro definition.  Be wary of adding one by accident; it's
+easy to do from habit, and your compiler might not complain, but someone else's
+probably will!  (On Windows, MSVC is known to call this an error and refuse to
+compile the code.)
+
+For contrast, let's take a look at the corresponding definition for standard
+Python integers::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       long ob_ival;
+   } PyIntObject;
+
+Moving on, we come to the crunch --- the type object. ::
+
+   static PyTypeObject noddy_NoddyType = {
+       PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
+       0,                         /*ob_size*/
+       "noddy.Noddy",             /*tp_name*/
+       sizeof(noddy_NoddyObject), /*tp_basicsize*/
+       0,                         /*tp_itemsize*/
+       0,                         /*tp_dealloc*/
+       0,                         /*tp_print*/
+       0,                         /*tp_getattr*/
+       0,                         /*tp_setattr*/
+       0,                         /*tp_compare*/
+       0,                         /*tp_repr*/
+       0,                         /*tp_as_number*/
+       0,                         /*tp_as_sequence*/
+       0,                         /*tp_as_mapping*/
+       0,                         /*tp_hash */
+       0,                         /*tp_call*/
+       0,                         /*tp_str*/
+       0,                         /*tp_getattro*/
+       0,                         /*tp_setattro*/
+       0,                         /*tp_as_buffer*/
+       Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,        /*tp_flags*/
+       "Noddy objects",           /* tp_doc */
+   };
+
+Now if you go and look up the definition of :ctype:`PyTypeObject` in
+:file:`object.h` you'll see that it has many more fields that the definition
+above.  The remaining fields will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and
+it's common practice to not specify them explicitly unless you need them.
+
+This is so important that we're going to pick the top of it apart still
+further::
+
+   PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
+
+This line is a bit of a wart; what we'd like to write is::
+
+   PyObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type)
+
+as the type of a type object is "type", but this isn't strictly conforming C and
+some compilers complain.  Fortunately, this member will be filled in for us by
+:cfunc:`PyType_Ready`. ::
+
+   0,                          /* ob_size */
+
+The :attr:`ob_size` field of the header is not used; its presence in the type
+structure is a historical artifact that is maintained for binary compatibility
+with extension modules compiled for older versions of Python.  Always set this
+field to zero. ::
+
+   "noddy.Noddy",              /* tp_name */
+
+The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual representation of
+our objects and in some error messages, for example::
+
+   >>> "" + noddy.new_noddy()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+   TypeError: cannot add type "noddy.Noddy" to string
+
+Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the
+name of the type within the module. The module in this case is :mod:`noddy` and
+the type is :class:`Noddy`, so we set the type name to :class:`noddy.Noddy`. ::
+
+   sizeof(noddy_NoddyObject),  /* tp_basicsize */
+
+This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when you call
+:cfunc:`PyObject_New`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same
+   :attr:`tp_basicsize` as its base type, you may have problems with multiple
+   inheritance.  A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first
+   in its :attr:`__bases__`, or else it will not be able to call your type's
+   :meth:`__new__` method without getting an error.  You can avoid this problem by
+   ensuring that your type has a larger value for :attr:`tp_basicsize` than its
+   base type does.  Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your
+   base type will be :class:`object`, or else you will be adding data members to
+   your base type, and therefore increasing its size.
+
+::
+
+   0,                          /* tp_itemsize */
+
+This has to do with variable length objects like lists and strings. Ignore this
+for now.
+
+Skipping a number of type methods that we don't provide, we set the class flags
+to :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT`. ::
+
+   Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,        /*tp_flags*/
+
+All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all of the
+members defined by the current version of Python.
+
+We provide a doc string for the type in :attr:`tp_doc`. ::
+
+   "Noddy objects",           /* tp_doc */
+
+Now we get into the type methods, the things that make your objects different
+from the others.  We aren't going to implement any of these in this version of
+the module.  We'll expand this example later to have more interesting behavior.
+
+For now, all we want to be able to do is to create new :class:`Noddy` objects.
+To enable object creation, we have to provide a :attr:`tp_new` implementation.
+In this case, we can just use the default implementation provided by the API
+function :cfunc:`PyType_GenericNew`.  We'd like to just assign this to the
+:attr:`tp_new` slot, but we can't, for portability sake, On some platforms or
+compilers, we can't statically initialize a structure member with a function
+defined in another C module, so, instead, we'll assign the :attr:`tp_new` slot
+in the module initialization function just before calling
+:cfunc:`PyType_Ready`::
+
+   noddy_NoddyType.tp_new = PyType_GenericNew;
+   if (PyType_Ready(&noddy_NoddyType) < 0)
+       return;
+
+All the other type methods are *NULL*, so we'll go over them later --- that's
+for a later section!
+
+Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
+:cfunc:`initnoddy`::
+
+   if (PyType_Ready(&noddy_NoddyType) < 0)
+       return;
+
+This initializes the :class:`Noddy` type, filing in a number of members,
+including :attr:`ob_type` that we initially set to *NULL*. ::
+
+   PyModule_AddObject(m, "Noddy", (PyObject *)&noddy_NoddyType);
+
+This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
+:class:`Noddy` instances by calling the :class:`Noddy` class::
+
+   >>> import noddy
+   >>> mynoddy = noddy.Noddy()
+
+That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called
+:file:`noddy.c` and ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+   setup(name="noddy", version="1.0",
+         ext_modules=[Extension("noddy", ["noddy.c"])])
+
+in a file called :file:`setup.py`; then typing ::
+
+   $ python setup.py build
+
+at a shell should produce a file :file:`noddy.so` in a subdirectory; move to
+that directory and fire up Python --- you should be able to ``import noddy`` and
+play around with Noddy objects.
+
+.. % $ <-- bow to font-lock  ;-(
+
+That wasn't so hard, was it?
+
+Of course, the current Noddy type is pretty uninteresting. It has no data and
+doesn't do anything. It can't even be subclassed.
+
+
+Adding data and methods to the Basic example
+--------------------------------------------
+
+Let's expend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let's also make
+the type usable as a base class. We'll create a new module, :mod:`noddy2` that
+adds these capabilities:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/noddy2.c
+
+
+This version of the module has a number of changes.
+
+We've added an extra include::
+
+   #include "structmember.h"
+
+This include provides declarations that we use to handle attributes, as
+described a bit later.
+
+The name of the :class:`Noddy` object structure has been shortened to
+:class:`Noddy`.  The type object name has been shortened to :class:`NoddyType`.
+
+The  :class:`Noddy` type now has three data attributes, *first*, *last*, and
+*number*.  The *first* and *last* variables are Python strings containing first
+and last names. The *number* attribute is an integer.
+
+The object structure is updated accordingly::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       PyObject *first;
+       PyObject *last;
+       int number;
+   } Noddy;
+
+Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about object
+allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a deallocation method::
+
+   static void
+   Noddy_dealloc(Noddy* self)
+   {
+       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
+       Py_XDECREF(self->last);
+       self->ob_type->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
+   }
+
+which is assigned to the :attr:`tp_dealloc` member::
+
+   (destructor)Noddy_dealloc, /*tp_dealloc*/
+
+This method decrements the reference counts of the two Python attributes. We use
+:cfunc:`Py_XDECREF` here because the :attr:`first` and :attr:`last` members
+could be *NULL*.  It then calls the :attr:`tp_free` member of the object's type
+to free the object's memory.  Note that the object's type might not be
+:class:`NoddyType`, because the object may be an instance of a subclass.
+
+We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to empty
+strings, so we provide a new method::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   Noddy_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       Noddy *self;
+
+       self = (Noddy *)type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
+       if (self != NULL) {
+           self->first = PyString_FromString("");
+           if (self->first == NULL)
+             {
+               Py_DECREF(self);
+               return NULL;
+             }
+
+           self->last = PyString_FromString("");
+           if (self->last == NULL)
+             {
+               Py_DECREF(self);
+               return NULL;
+             }
+
+           self->number = 0;
+       }
+
+       return (PyObject *)self;
+   }
+
+and install it in the :attr:`tp_new` member::
+
+   Noddy_new,                 /* tp_new */
+
+The new member is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing) objects
+of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the :meth:`__new__` method.  See the
+paper titled "Unifying types and classes in Python" for a detailed discussion of
+the :meth:`__new__` method.  One reason to implement a new method is to assure
+the initial values of instance variables.  In this case, we use the new method
+to make sure that the initial values of the members :attr:`first` and
+:attr:`last` are not *NULL*. If we didn't care whether the initial values were
+*NULL*, we could have used :cfunc:`PyType_GenericNew` as our new method, as we
+did before.  :cfunc:`PyType_GenericNew` initializes all of the instance variable
+members to *NULL*.
+
+The new method is a static method that is passed the type being instantiated and
+any arguments passed when the type was called, and that returns the new object
+created. New methods always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they
+often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer
+methods. Note that if the type supports subclassing, the type passed may not be
+the type being defined.  The new method calls the tp_alloc slot to allocate
+memory. We don't fill the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot ourselves. Rather
+:cfunc:`PyType_Ready` fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class,
+which is :class:`object` by default.  Most types use the default allocation.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you are creating a co-operative :attr:`tp_new` (one that calls a base type's
+   :attr:`tp_new` or :meth:`__new__`), you must *not* try to determine what method
+   to call using method resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine
+   what type you are going to call, and call its :attr:`tp_new` directly, or via
+   ``type->tp_base->tp_new``.  If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your
+   type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly.
+   (Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses
+   without getting a :exc:`TypeError`.)
+
+We provide an initialization function::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_init(Noddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       PyObject *first=NULL, *last=NULL, *tmp;
+
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
+
+       if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
+                                         &first, &last,
+                                         &self->number))
+           return -1;
+
+       if (first) {
+           tmp = self->first;
+           Py_INCREF(first);
+           self->first = first;
+           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+       }
+
+       if (last) {
+           tmp = self->last;
+           Py_INCREF(last);
+           self->last = last;
+           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+       }
+
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+by filling the :attr:`tp_init` slot. ::
+
+   (initproc)Noddy_init,         /* tp_init */
+
+The :attr:`tp_init` slot is exposed in Python as the :meth:`__init__` method. It
+is used to initialize an object after it's created. Unlike the new method, we
+can't guarantee that the initializer is called.  The initializer isn't called
+when unpickling objects and it can be overridden.  Our initializer accepts
+arguments to provide initial values for our instance. Initializers always accept
+positional and keyword arguments.
+
+Initializers can be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the :meth:`__init__`
+method on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
+assigning the new values.  We might be tempted, for example to assign the
+:attr:`first` member like this::
+
+   if (first) {
+       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
+       Py_INCREF(first);
+       self->first = first;
+   }
+
+But this would be risky.  Our type doesn't restrict the type of the
+:attr:`first` member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
+destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
+:attr:`first` member.  To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this
+possibility, we almost always reassign members before decrementing their
+reference counts.  When don't we have to do this?
+
+* when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1
+
+* when we know that deallocation of the object [#]_ will not cause any calls
+  back into our type's code
+
+* when decrementing a reference count in a :attr:`tp_dealloc` handler when
+  garbage-collections is not supported [#]_
+
+We want to want to expose our instance variables as attributes. There are a
+number of ways to do that. The simplest way is to define member definitions::
+
+   static PyMemberDef Noddy_members[] = {
+       {"first", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(Noddy, first), 0,
+        "first name"},
+       {"last", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(Noddy, last), 0,
+        "last name"},
+       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(Noddy, number), 0,
+        "noddy number"},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+and put the definitions in the :attr:`tp_members` slot::
+
+   Noddy_members,             /* tp_members */
+
+Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
+documentation string. See the "Generic Attribute Management" section below for
+details.
+
+A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn't provide a way to restrict the
+types of objects that can be assigned to the Python attributes.  We expect the
+first and last names to be strings, but any Python objects can be assigned.
+Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to *NULL*.  Even
+though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-*NULL* values, the
+members can be set to *NULL* if the attributes are deleted.
+
+We define a single method, :meth:`name`, that outputs the objects name as the
+concatenation of the first and last names. ::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   Noddy_name(Noddy* self)
+   {
+       static PyObject *format = NULL;
+       PyObject *args, *result;
+
+       if (format == NULL) {
+           format = PyString_FromString("%s %s");
+           if (format == NULL)
+               return NULL;
+       }
+
+       if (self->first == NULL) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
+           return NULL;
+       }
+
+       if (self->last == NULL) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
+           return NULL;
+       }
+
+       args = Py_BuildValue("OO", self->first, self->last);
+       if (args == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+
+       result = PyString_Format(format, args);
+       Py_DECREF(args);
+
+       return result;
+   }
+
+The method is implemented as a C function that takes a :class:`Noddy` (or
+:class:`Noddy` subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take an
+instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword
+arguments as well, but in this cased we don't take any and don't need to accept
+a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is
+equivalent to the Python method::
+
+   def name(self):
+      return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)
+
+Note that we have to check for the possibility that our :attr:`first` and
+:attr:`last` members are *NULL*.  This is because they can be deleted, in which
+case they are set to *NULL*.  It would be better to prevent deletion of these
+attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings.  We'll see how to
+do that in the next section.
+
+Now that we've defined the method, we need to create an array of method
+definitions::
+
+   static PyMethodDef Noddy_methods[] = {
+       {"name", (PyCFunction)Noddy_name, METH_NOARGS,
+        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
+       },
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+and assign them to the :attr:`tp_methods` slot::
+
+   Noddy_methods,             /* tp_methods */
+
+Note that we used the :const:`METH_NOARGS` flag to indicate that the method is
+passed no arguments.
+
+Finally, we'll make our type usable as a base class.  We've written our methods
+carefully so far so that they don't make any assumptions about the type of the
+object being created or used, so all we need to do is to add the
+:const:`Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE` to our class flag definition::
+
+   Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, /*tp_flags*/
+
+We rename :cfunc:`initnoddy` to :cfunc:`initnoddy2` and update the module name
+passed to :cfunc:`Py_InitModule3`.
+
+Finally, we update our :file:`setup.py` file to build the new module::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+   setup(name="noddy", version="1.0",
+         ext_modules=[
+            Extension("noddy", ["noddy.c"]),
+            Extension("noddy2", ["noddy2.c"]),
+            ])
+
+
+Providing finer control over data attributes
+--------------------------------------------
+
+In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the :attr:`first` and
+:attr:`last` attributes are set in the :class:`Noddy` example. In the previous
+version of our module, the instance variables :attr:`first` and :attr:`last`
+could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that
+these attributes always contain strings.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/noddy3.c
+
+
+To provide greater control, over the :attr:`first` and :attr:`last` attributes,
+we'll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions for
+getting and setting the :attr:`first` attribute::
+
+   Noddy_getfirst(Noddy *self, void *closure)
+   {
+       Py_INCREF(self->first);
+       return self->first;
+   }
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_setfirst(Noddy *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
+   {
+     if (value == NULL) {
+       PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
+       return -1;
+     }
+
+     if (! PyString_Check(value)) {
+       PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
+                       "The first attribute value must be a string");
+       return -1;
+     }
+
+     Py_DECREF(self->first);
+     Py_INCREF(value);
+     self->first = value;
+
+     return 0;
+   }
+
+The getter function is passed a :class:`Noddy` object and a "closure", which is
+void pointer. In this case, the closure is ignored. (The closure supports an
+advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This
+could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions
+that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.)
+
+The setter function is passed the :class:`Noddy` object, the new value, and the
+closure. The new value may be *NULL*, in which case the attribute is being
+deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if the
+attribute value is not a string.
+
+We create an array of :ctype:`PyGetSetDef` structures::
+
+   static PyGetSetDef Noddy_getseters[] = {
+       {"first",
+        (getter)Noddy_getfirst, (setter)Noddy_setfirst,
+        "first name",
+        NULL},
+       {"last",
+        (getter)Noddy_getlast, (setter)Noddy_setlast,
+        "last name",
+        NULL},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+and register it in the :attr:`tp_getset` slot::
+
+   Noddy_getseters,           /* tp_getset */
+
+to register out attribute getters and setters.
+
+The last item in a :ctype:`PyGetSetDef` structure is the closure mentioned
+above. In this case, we aren't using the closure, so we just pass *NULL*.
+
+We also remove the member definitions for these attributes::
+
+   static PyMemberDef Noddy_members[] = {
+       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(Noddy, number), 0,
+        "noddy number"},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+We also need to update the :attr:`tp_init` handler to only allow strings [#]_ to
+be passed::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_init(Noddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       PyObject *first=NULL, *last=NULL, *tmp;
+
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
+
+       if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|SSi", kwlist,
+                                         &first, &last,
+                                         &self->number))
+           return -1;
+
+       if (first) {
+           tmp = self->first;
+           Py_INCREF(first);
+           self->first = first;
+           Py_DECREF(tmp);
+       }
+
+       if (last) {
+           tmp = self->last;
+           Py_INCREF(last);
+           self->last = last;
+           Py_DECREF(tmp);
+       }
+
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+With these changes, we can assure that the :attr:`first` and :attr:`last`
+members are never *NULL* so we can remove checks for *NULL* values in almost all
+cases. This means that most of the :cfunc:`Py_XDECREF` calls can be converted to
+:cfunc:`Py_DECREF` calls. The only place we can't change these calls is in the
+deallocator, where there is the possibility that the initialization of these
+members failed in the constructor.
+
+We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
+initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra definition to the
+:file:`setup.py` file.
+
+
+Supporting cyclic garbage collection
+------------------------------------
+
+Python has a cyclic-garbage collector that can identify unneeded objects even
+when their reference counts are not zero. This can happen when objects are
+involved in cycles.  For example, consider::
+
+   >>> l = []
+   >>> l.append(l)
+   >>> del l
+
+In this example, we create a list that contains itself. When we delete it, it
+still has a reference from itself. Its reference count doesn't drop to zero.
+Fortunately, Python's cyclic-garbage collector will eventually figure out that
+the list is garbage and free it.
+
+In the second version of the :class:`Noddy` example, we allowed any kind of
+object to be stored in the :attr:`first` or :attr:`last` attributes. [#]_ This
+means that :class:`Noddy` objects can participate in cycles::
+
+   >>> import noddy2
+   >>> n = noddy2.Noddy()
+   >>> l = [n]
+   >>> n.first = l
+
+This is pretty silly, but it gives us an excuse to add support for the
+cyclic-garbage collector to the :class:`Noddy` example.  To support cyclic
+garbage collection, types need to fill two slots and set a class flag that
+enables these slots:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/noddy4.c
+
+
+The traversal method provides access to subobjects that could participate in
+cycles::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+   {
+       int vret;
+
+       if (self->first) {
+           vret = visit(self->first, arg);
+           if (vret != 0)
+               return vret;
+       }
+       if (self->last) {
+           vret = visit(self->last, arg);
+           if (vret != 0)
+               return vret;
+       }
+
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
+:cfunc:`visit` function, which is passed to the traversal method. The
+:cfunc:`visit` function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument
+*arg* passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer value that must be
+returned if it is non-zero.
+
+Python 2.4 and higher provide a :cfunc:`Py_VISIT` macro that automates calling
+visit functions.  With :cfunc:`Py_VISIT`, :cfunc:`Noddy_traverse` can be
+simplified::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+   {
+       Py_VISIT(self->first);
+       Py_VISIT(self->last);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+.. note::
+
+   Note that the :attr:`tp_traverse` implementation must name its arguments exactly
+   *visit* and *arg* in order to use :cfunc:`Py_VISIT`.  This is to encourage
+   uniformity across these boring implementations.
+
+We also need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
+participate in cycles.  We implement the method and reimplement the deallocator
+to use it::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_clear(Noddy *self)
+   {
+       PyObject *tmp;
+
+       tmp = self->first;
+       self->first = NULL;
+       Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+
+       tmp = self->last;
+       self->last = NULL;
+       Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+   static void
+   Noddy_dealloc(Noddy* self)
+   {
+       Noddy_clear(self);
+       self->ob_type->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
+   }
+
+Notice the use of a temporary variable in :cfunc:`Noddy_clear`. We use the
+temporary variable so that we can set each member to *NULL* before decrementing
+its reference count.  We do this because, as was discussed earlier, if the
+reference count drops to zero, we might cause code to run that calls back into
+the object.  In addition, because we now support garbage collection, we also
+have to worry about code being run that triggers garbage collection.  If garbage
+collection is run, our :attr:`tp_traverse` handler could get called. We can't
+take a chance of having :cfunc:`Noddy_traverse` called when a member's reference
+count has dropped to zero and its value hasn't been set to *NULL*.
+
+Python 2.4 and higher provide a :cfunc:`Py_CLEAR` that automates the careful
+decrementing of reference counts.  With :cfunc:`Py_CLEAR`, the
+:cfunc:`Noddy_clear` function can be simplified::
+
+   static int
+   Noddy_clear(Noddy *self)
+   {
+       Py_CLEAR(self->first);
+       Py_CLEAR(self->last);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+Finally, we add the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag to the class flags::
+
+   Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, /*tp_flags*/
+
+That's pretty much it.  If we had written custom :attr:`tp_alloc` or
+:attr:`tp_free` slots, we'd need to modify them for cyclic-garbage collection.
+Most extensions will use the versions automatically provided.
+
+
+Subclassing other types
+-----------------------
+
+It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from existing
+types. It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since an extension can
+easily use the :class:`PyTypeObject` it needs. It can be difficult to share
+these :class:`PyTypeObject` structures between extension modules.
+
+In this example we will create a :class:`Shoddy` type that inherits from the
+builtin :class:`list` type. The new type will be completely compatible with
+regular lists, but will have an additional :meth:`increment` method that
+increases an internal counter. ::
+
+   >>> import shoddy
+   >>> s = shoddy.Shoddy(range(3))
+   >>> s.extend(s)
+   >>> print len(s)
+   6
+   >>> print s.increment()
+   1
+   >>> print s.increment()
+   2
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/shoddy.c
+
+
+As you can see, the source code closely resembles the :class:`Noddy` examples in
+previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them. ::
+
+   typedef struct {
+   	PyListObject list;
+   	int state;
+   } Shoddy;
+
+The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type's object
+structure must be the first value. The base type will already include the
+:cfunc:`PyObject_HEAD` at the beginning of its structure.
+
+When a Python object is a :class:`Shoddy` instance, its *PyObject\** pointer can
+be safely cast to both *PyListObject\** and *Shoddy\**. ::
+
+   static int
+   Shoddy_init(Shoddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+   	if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *)self, args, kwds) < 0)
+   		return -1;
+   	self->state = 0;
+   	return 0;
+   }
+
+In the :attr:`__init__` method for our type, we can see how to call through to
+the :attr:`__init__` method of the base type.
+
+This pattern is important when writing a type with custom :attr:`new` and
+:attr:`dealloc` methods. The :attr:`new` method should not actually create the
+memory for the object with :attr:`tp_alloc`, that will be handled by the base
+class when calling its :attr:`tp_new`.
+
+When filling out the :cfunc:`PyTypeObject` for the :class:`Shoddy` type, you see
+a slot for :cfunc:`tp_base`. Due to cross platform compiler issues, you can't
+fill that field directly with the :cfunc:`PyList_Type`; it can be done later in
+the module's :cfunc:`init` function. ::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   initshoddy(void)
+   {
+   	PyObject *m;
+
+   	ShoddyType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
+   	if (PyType_Ready(&ShoddyType) < 0)
+   		return;
+
+   	m = Py_InitModule3("shoddy", NULL, "Shoddy module");
+   	if (m == NULL)
+   		return;
+
+   	Py_INCREF(&ShoddyType);
+   	PyModule_AddObject(m, "Shoddy", (PyObject *) &ShoddyType);
+   }
+
+Before calling :cfunc:`PyType_Ready`, the type structure must have the
+:attr:`tp_base` slot filled in. When we are deriving a new type, it is not
+necessary to fill out the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot with :cfunc:`PyType_GenericNew`
+-- the allocate function from the base type will be inherited.
+
+After that, calling :cfunc:`PyType_Ready` and adding the type object to the
+module is the same as with the basic :class:`Noddy` examples.
+
+
+.. _dnt-type-methods:
+
+Type Methods
+============
+
+This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you can
+implement and what they do.
+
+Here is the definition of :ctype:`PyTypeObject`, with some fields only used in
+debug builds omitted:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/typestruct.h
+
+
+Now that's a *lot* of methods.  Don't worry too much though - if you have a type
+you want to define, the chances are very good that you will only implement a
+handful of these.
+
+As you probably expect by now, we're going to go over this and give more
+information about the various handlers.  We won't go in the order they are
+defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical baggage that
+impacts the ordering of the fields; be sure your type initialization keeps the
+fields in the right order!  It's often easiest to find an example that includes
+all the fields you need (even if they're initialized to ``0``) and then change
+the values to suit your new type. ::
+
+   char *tp_name; /* For printing */
+
+The name of the type - as mentioned in the last section, this will appear in
+various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes. Try to choose something
+that will be helpful in such a situation! ::
+
+   int tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */
+
+These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new objects of
+this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for variable length
+structures (think: strings, lists) which is where the :attr:`tp_itemsize` field
+comes in.  This will be dealt with later. ::
+
+   char *tp_doc;
+
+Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when the
+Python script references ``obj.__doc__`` to retrieve the doc string.
+
+Now we come to the basic type methods---the ones most extension types will
+implement.
+
+
+Finalization and De-allocation
+------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: object; deallocation
+   single: deallocation, object
+   single: object; finalization
+   single: finalization, of objects
+
+::
+
+   destructor tp_dealloc;
+
+This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your type is
+reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.  If your type
+has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, put it here.  The object itself
+needs to be freed here as well.  Here is an example of this function::
+
+   static void
+   newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject * obj)
+   {
+       free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
+       obj->ob_type->tp_free(obj);
+   }
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyErr_Fetch()
+   single: PyErr_Restore()
+
+One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves any
+pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are frequently
+called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the stack is unwound
+due to an exception (rather than normal returns), nothing is done to protect the
+deallocators from seeing that an exception has already been set.  Any actions
+which a deallocator performs which may cause additional Python code to be
+executed may detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
+errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is to save
+a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and restoring it when
+done.  This can be done using the :cfunc:`PyErr_Fetch` and
+:cfunc:`PyErr_Restore` functions::
+
+   static void
+   my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
+   {
+       MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
+       PyObject *cbresult;
+
+       if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
+           PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;
+           int have_error = PyErr_Occurred() ? 1 : 0;
+
+           if (have_error)
+               PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);
+
+           cbresult = PyObject_CallObject(self->my_callback, NULL);
+           if (cbresult == NULL)
+               PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
+           else
+               Py_DECREF(cbresult);
+
+           if (have_error)
+               PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);
+
+           Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
+       }
+       obj->ob_type->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
+   }
+
+
+Object Presentation
+-------------------
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: repr
+   builtin: str
+
+In Python, there are three ways to generate a textual representation of an
+object: the :func:`repr` function (or equivalent back-tick syntax), the
+:func:`str` function, and the :keyword:`print` statement.  For most objects, the
+:keyword:`print` statement is equivalent to the :func:`str` function, but it is
+possible to special-case printing to a :ctype:`FILE\*` if necessary; this should
+only be done if efficiency is identified as a problem and profiling suggests
+that creating a temporary string object to be written to a file is too
+expensive.
+
+These handlers are all optional, and most types at most need to implement the
+:attr:`tp_str` and :attr:`tp_repr` handlers. ::
+
+   reprfunc tp_repr;
+   reprfunc tp_str;
+   printfunc tp_print;
+
+The :attr:`tp_repr` handler should return a string object containing a
+representation of the instance for which it is called.  Here is a simple
+example::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject * obj)
+   {
+       return PyString_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:\%d}}",
+                                  obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+   }
+
+If no :attr:`tp_repr` handler is specified, the interpreter will supply a
+representation that uses the type's :attr:`tp_name` and a uniquely-identifying
+value for the object.
+
+The :attr:`tp_str` handler is to :func:`str` what the :attr:`tp_repr` handler
+described above is to :func:`repr`; that is, it is called when Python code calls
+:func:`str` on an instance of your object.  Its implementation is very similar
+to the :attr:`tp_repr` function, but the resulting string is intended for human
+consumption.  If :attr:`tp_str` is not specified, the :attr:`tp_repr` handler is
+used instead.
+
+Here is a simple example::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject * obj)
+   {
+       return PyString_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:\%d}}",
+                                  obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+   }
+
+The print function will be called whenever Python needs to "print" an instance
+of the type.  For example, if 'node' is an instance of type TreeNode, then the
+print function is called when Python code calls::
+
+   print node
+
+There is a flags argument and one flag, :const:`Py_PRINT_RAW`, and it suggests
+that you print without string quotes and possibly without interpreting escape
+sequences.
+
+The print function receives a file object as an argument. You will likely want
+to write to that file object.
+
+Here is a sample print function::
+
+   static int
+   newdatatype_print(newdatatypeobject *obj, FILE *fp, int flags)
+   {
+       if (flags & Py_PRINT_RAW) {
+           fprintf(fp, "<{newdatatype object--size: %d}>",
+                   obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+       }
+       else {
+           fprintf(fp, "\"<{newdatatype object--size: %d}>\"",
+                   obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+
+Attribute Management
+--------------------
+
+For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type must
+provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.  There needs
+to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are defined), and another
+to set attributes (if setting attributes is allowed).  Removing an attribute is
+a special case, for which the new value passed to the handler is *NULL*.
+
+Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports attributes
+only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The difference is that one
+pair takes the name of the attribute as a :ctype:`char\*`, while the other
+accepts a :ctype:`PyObject\*`.  Each type can use whichever pair makes more
+sense for the implementation's convenience. ::
+
+   getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
+   setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
+   /* ... */
+   getattrofunc tp_getattrofunc;   /* PyObject * version */
+   setattrofunc tp_setattrofunc;
+
+If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this will be
+explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can be used to
+provide the :ctype:`PyObject\*` version of the attribute management functions.
+The actual need for type-specific attribute handlers almost completely
+disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though there are many examples which have
+not been updated to use some of the new generic mechanism that is available.
+
+
+Generic Attribute Management
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 2.2
+
+Most extension types only use *simple* attributes.  So, what makes the
+attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be met:
+
+#. The name of the attributes must be known when :cfunc:`PyType_Ready` is
+   called.
+
+#. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was looked up or
+   set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the value.
+
+Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
+attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is stored.
+
+When :cfunc:`PyType_Ready` is called, it uses three tables referenced by the
+type object to create *descriptors* which are placed in the dictionary of the
+type object.  Each descriptor controls access to one attribute of the instance
+object.  Each of the tables is optional; if all three are *NULL*, instances of
+the type will only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and
+should leave the :attr:`tp_getattro` and :attr:`tp_setattro` fields *NULL* as
+well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.
+
+The tables are declared as three fields of the type object::
+
+   struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
+   struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
+   struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
+
+If :attr:`tp_methods` is not *NULL*, it must refer to an array of
+:ctype:`PyMethodDef` structures.  Each entry in the table is an instance of this
+structure::
+
+   typedef struct PyMethodDef {
+       char        *ml_name;       /* method name */
+       PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
+       int	         ml_flags;      /* flags */
+       char        *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
+   } PyMethodDef;
+
+One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no entries are
+needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One additional entry is needed
+at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array.  The
+:attr:`ml_name` field of the sentinel must be *NULL*.
+
+XXX Need to refer to some unified discussion of the structure fields, shared
+with the next section.
+
+The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data stored
+in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported, and access may
+be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table are defined as::
+
+   typedef struct PyMemberDef {
+       char *name;
+       int   type;
+       int   offset;
+       int   flags;
+       char *doc;
+   } PyMemberDef;
+
+For each entry in the table, a descriptor will be constructed and added to the
+type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure.  The
+:attr:`type` field should contain one of the type codes defined in the
+:file:`structmember.h` header; the value will be used to determine how to
+convert Python values to and from C values.  The :attr:`flags` field is used to
+store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed.
+
+XXX Need to move some of this to a shared section!
+
+The following flag constants are defined in :file:`structmember.h`; they may be
+combined using bitwise-OR.
+
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Constant                  | Meaning                                      |
++===========================+==============================================+
+| :const:`READONLY`         | Never writable.                              |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`RO`               | Shorthand for :const:`READONLY`.             |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`READ_RESTRICTED`  | Not readable in restricted mode.             |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`WRITE_RESTRICTED` | Not writable in restricted mode.             |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`RESTRICTED`       | Not readable or writable in restricted mode. |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+.. index::
+   single: READONLY
+   single: RO
+   single: READ_RESTRICTED
+   single: WRITE_RESTRICTED
+   single: RESTRICTED
+
+An interesting advantage of using the :attr:`tp_members` table to build
+descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can
+have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table.  An
+application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the
+class object, and get the doc string using its :attr:`__doc__` attribute.
+
+As with the :attr:`tp_methods` table, a sentinel entry with a :attr:`name` value
+of *NULL* is required.
+
+.. % XXX Descriptors need to be explained in more detail somewhere, but
+.. % not here.
+.. % 
+.. % Descriptor objects have two handler functions which correspond to
+.. % the \member{tp_getattro} and \member{tp_setattro} handlers.  The
+.. % \method{__get__()} handler is a function which is passed the
+.. % descriptor, instance, and type objects, and returns the value of the
+.. % attribute, or it returns \NULL{} and sets an exception.  The
+.. % \method{__set__()} handler is passed the descriptor, instance, type,
+.. % and new value;
+
+
+Type-specific Attribute Management
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+For simplicity, only the :ctype:`char\*` version will be demonstrated here; the
+type of the name parameter is the only difference between the :ctype:`char\*`
+and :ctype:`PyObject\*` flavors of the interface. This example effectively does
+the same thing as the generic example above, but does not use the generic
+support added in Python 2.2.  The value in showing this is two-fold: it
+demonstrates how basic attribute management can be done in a way that is
+portable to older versions of Python, and explains how the handler functions are
+called, so that if you do need to extend their functionality, you'll understand
+what needs to be done.
+
+The :attr:`tp_getattr` handler is called when the object requires an attribute
+look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the :meth:`__getattr__`
+method of a class would be called.
+
+A likely way to handle this is (1) to implement a set of functions (such as
+:cfunc:`newdatatype_getSize` and :cfunc:`newdatatype_setSize` in the example
+below), (2) provide a method table listing these functions, and (3) provide a
+getattr function that returns the result of a lookup in that table.  The method
+table uses the same structure as the :attr:`tp_methods` field of the type
+object.
+
+Here is an example::
+
+   static PyMethodDef newdatatype_methods[] = {
+       {"getSize", (PyCFunction)newdatatype_getSize, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Return the current size."},
+       {"setSize", (PyCFunction)newdatatype_setSize, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Set the size."},
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}           /* sentinel */
+   };
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
+   {
+       return Py_FindMethod(newdatatype_methods, (PyObject *)obj, name);
+   }
+
+The :attr:`tp_setattr` handler is called when the :meth:`__setattr__` or
+:meth:`__delattr__` method of a class instance would be called.  When an
+attribute should be deleted, the third parameter will be *NULL*.  Here is an
+example that simply raises an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the
+:attr:`tp_setattr` handler should be set to *NULL*. ::
+
+   static int
+   newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
+   {
+       (void)PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: \%s", name);
+       return -1;
+   }
+
+
+Object Comparison
+-----------------
+
+::
+
+   cmpfunc tp_compare;
+
+The :attr:`tp_compare` handler is called when comparisons are needed and the
+object does not implement the specific rich comparison method which matches the
+requested comparison.  (It is always used if defined and the
+:cfunc:`PyObject_Compare` or :cfunc:`PyObject_Cmp` functions are used, or if
+:func:`cmp` is used from Python.) It is analogous to the :meth:`__cmp__` method.
+This function should return ``-1`` if *obj1* is less than *obj2*, ``0`` if they
+are equal, and ``1`` if *obj1* is greater than *obj2*. (It was previously
+allowed to return arbitrary negative or positive integers for less than and
+greater than, respectively; as of Python 2.2, this is no longer allowed.  In the
+future, other return values may be assigned a different meaning.)
+
+A :attr:`tp_compare` handler may raise an exception.  In this case it should
+return a negative value.  The caller has to test for the exception using
+:cfunc:`PyErr_Occurred`.
+
+Here is a sample implementation::
+
+   static int
+   newdatatype_compare(newdatatypeobject * obj1, newdatatypeobject * obj2)
+   {
+       long result;
+
+       if (obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size <
+           obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size) {
+           result = -1;
+       }
+       else if (obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size >
+                obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size) {
+           result = 1;
+       }
+       else {
+           result = 0;
+       }
+       return result;
+   }
+
+
+Abstract Protocol Support
+-------------------------
+
+Python supports a variety of *abstract* 'protocols;' the specific interfaces
+provided to use these interfaces are documented in :ref:`abstract`.
+
+
+A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the development of
+the Python implementation.  In particular, the number, mapping, and sequence
+protocols have been part of Python since the beginning.  Other protocols have
+been added over time.  For protocols which depend on several handler routines
+from the type implementation, the older protocols have been defined as optional
+blocks of handlers referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are
+additional slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
+that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.  (The flag
+bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-*NULL*. The flag may be set
+to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may still be unfilled.) ::
+
+   PyNumberMethods   tp_as_number;
+   PySequenceMethods tp_as_sequence;
+   PyMappingMethods  tp_as_mapping;
+
+If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or a
+mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that implements the C
+type :ctype:`PyNumberMethods`, :ctype:`PySequenceMethods`, or
+:ctype:`PyMappingMethods`, respectively. It is up to you to fill in this
+structure with appropriate values. You can find examples of the use of each of
+these in the :file:`Objects` directory of the Python source distribution. ::
+
+   hashfunc tp_hash;
+
+This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number for an
+instance of your data type. Here is a moderately pointless example::
+
+   static long
+   newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
+   {
+       long result;
+       result = obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
+       result = result * 3;
+       return result;
+   }
+
+::
+
+   ternaryfunc tp_call;
+
+This function is called when an instance of your data type is "called", for
+example, if ``obj1`` is an instance of your data type and the Python script
+contains ``obj1('hello')``, the :attr:`tp_call` handler is invoked.
+
+This function takes three arguments:
+
+#. *arg1* is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the call. If
+   the call is ``obj1('hello')``, then *arg1* is ``obj1``.
+
+#. *arg2* is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can use
+   :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple` to extract the arguments.
+
+#. *arg3* is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed. If this is
+   non-*NULL* and you support keyword arguments, use
+   :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` to extract the arguments.  If you do not
+   want to support keyword arguments and this is non-*NULL*, raise a
+   :exc:`TypeError` with a message saying that keyword arguments are not supported.
+
+Here is a desultory example of the implementation of the call function. ::
+
+   /* Implement the call function.
+    *    obj1 is the instance receiving the call.
+    *    obj2 is a tuple containing the arguments to the call, in this
+    *         case 3 strings.
+    */
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *other)
+   {
+       PyObject *result;
+       char *arg1;
+       char *arg2;
+       char *arg3;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
+           return NULL;
+       }
+       result = PyString_FromFormat(
+           "Returning -- value: [\%d] arg1: [\%s] arg2: [\%s] arg3: [\%s]\n",
+           obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
+           arg1, arg2, arg3);
+       printf("\%s", PyString_AS_STRING(result));
+       return result;
+   }
+
+XXX some fields need to be added here... ::
+
+   /* Added in release 2.2 */
+   /* Iterators */
+   getiterfunc tp_iter;
+   iternextfunc tp_iternext;
+
+These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Any object which
+wishes to support iteration over its contents (which may be generated during
+iteration) must implement the ``tp_iter`` handler.  Objects which are returned
+by a ``tp_iter`` handler must implement both the ``tp_iter`` and ``tp_iternext``
+handlers. Both handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they
+are being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they
+should set an exception and return *NULL*.
+
+For an object which represents an iterable collection, the ``tp_iter`` handler
+must return an iterator object.  The iterator object is responsible for
+maintaining the state of the iteration.  For collections which can support
+multiple iterators which do not interfere with each other (as lists and tuples
+do), a new iterator should be created and returned.  Objects which can only be
+iterated over once (usually due to side effects of iteration) should implement
+this handler by returning a new reference to themselves, and should also
+implement the ``tp_iternext`` handler.  File objects are an example of such an
+iterator.
+
+Iterator objects should implement both handlers.  The ``tp_iter`` handler should
+return a new reference to the iterator (this is the same as the ``tp_iter``
+handler for objects which can only be iterated over destructively).  The
+``tp_iternext`` handler should return a new reference to the next object in the
+iteration if there is one.  If the iteration has reached the end, it may return
+*NULL* without setting an exception or it may set :exc:`StopIteration`; avoiding
+the exception can yield slightly better performance.  If an actual error occurs,
+it should set an exception and return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. _weakref-support:
+
+Weak Reference Support
+----------------------
+
+One of the goals of Python's weak-reference implementation is to allow any type
+to participate in the weak reference mechanism without incurring the overhead on
+those objects which do not benefit by weak referencing (such as numbers).
+
+For an object to be weakly referencable, the extension must include a
+:ctype:`PyObject\*` field in the instance structure for the use of the weak
+reference mechanism; it must be initialized to *NULL* by the object's
+constructor.  It must also set the :attr:`tp_weaklistoffset` field of the
+corresponding type object to the offset of the field. For example, the instance
+type is defined with the following structure::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       PyClassObject *in_class;       /* The class object */
+       PyObject      *in_dict;        /* A dictionary */
+       PyObject      *in_weakreflist; /* List of weak references */
+   } PyInstanceObject;
+
+The statically-declared type object for instances is defined this way::
+
+   PyTypeObject PyInstance_Type = {
+       PyObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type)
+       0,
+       "module.instance",
+
+       /* Lots of stuff omitted for brevity... */
+
+       Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,                         /* tp_flags */
+       0,                                          /* tp_doc */
+       0,                                          /* tp_traverse */
+       0,                                          /* tp_clear */
+       0,                                          /* tp_richcompare */
+       offsetof(PyInstanceObject, in_weakreflist), /* tp_weaklistoffset */
+   };
+
+The type constructor is responsible for initializing the weak reference list to
+*NULL*::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   instance_new() {
+       /* Other initialization stuff omitted for brevity */
+
+       self->in_weakreflist = NULL;
+
+       return (PyObject *) self;
+   }
+
+The only further addition is that the destructor needs to call the weak
+reference manager to clear any weak references.  This should be done before any
+other parts of the destruction have occurred, but is only required if the weak
+reference list is non-*NULL*::
+
+   static void
+   instance_dealloc(PyInstanceObject *inst)
+   {
+       /* Allocate temporaries if needed, but do not begin
+          destruction just yet.
+        */
+
+       if (inst->in_weakreflist != NULL)
+           PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) inst);
+
+       /* Proceed with object destruction normally. */
+   }
+
+
+More Suggestions
+----------------
+
+Remember that you can omit most of these functions, in which case you provide
+``0`` as a value.  There are type definitions for each of the functions you must
+provide.  They are in :file:`object.h` in the Python include directory that
+comes with the source distribution of Python.
+
+In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data type,
+do the following: Download and unpack the Python source distribution.  Go the
+:file:`Objects` directory, then search the C source files for ``tp_`` plus the
+function you want (for example, ``tp_print`` or ``tp_compare``).  You will find
+examples of the function you want to implement.
+
+When you need to verify that an object is an instance of the type you are
+implementing, use the :cfunc:`PyObject_TypeCheck` function. A sample of its use
+might be something like the following::
+
+   if (! PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
+       PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
+       return NULL;
+   }
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a string or a
+   float.
+
+.. [#] We relied on this in the :attr:`tp_dealloc` handler in this example, because our
+   type doesn't support garbage collection. Even if a type supports garbage
+   collection, there are calls that can be made to "untrack" the object from
+   garbage collection, however, these calls are advanced and not covered here.
+
+.. [#] We now know that the first and last members are strings, so perhaps we could be
+   less careful about decrementing their reference counts, however, we accept
+   instances of string subclasses. Even though deallocating normal strings won't
+   call back into our objects, we can't guarantee that deallocating an instance of
+   a string subclass won't. call back into out objects.
+
+.. [#] Even in the third version, we aren't guaranteed to avoid cycles.  Instances of
+   string subclasses are allowed and string subclasses could allow cycles even if
+   normal strings don't.
+
diff --git a/Doc/extending/windows.rst b/Doc/extending/windows.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a66afe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/extending/windows.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,280 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _building-on-windows:
+
+****************************************
+Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
+****************************************
+
+.. % 
+
+This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module for
+Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed background
+information on how it works.  The explanatory material is useful for both the
+Windows programmer learning to build Python extensions and the Unix programmer
+interested in producing software which can be successfully built on both Unix
+and Windows.
+
+Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building
+extension modules, instead of the one described in this section. You will still
+need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically Microsoft Visual
+C++.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include an encoded Python
+   version number.  These filenames are represented with the version number shown
+   as ``XY``; in practive, ``'X'`` will be the major version number and ``'Y'``
+   will be the minor version number of the Python release you're working with.  For
+   example, if you are using Python 2.2.1, ``XY`` will actually be ``22``.
+
+
+.. _win-cookbook:
+
+A Cookbook Approach
+===================
+
+There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just as there
+are on Unix: use the :mod:`distutils` package to control the build process, or
+do things manually.  The distutils approach works well for most extensions;
+documentation on using :mod:`distutils` to build and package extension modules
+is available in :ref:`distutils-index`.  This section describes the manual
+approach to building Python extensions written in C or C++.
+
+To build extensions using these instructions, you need to have a copy of the
+Python sources of the same version as your installed Python. You will need
+Microsoft Visual C++ "Developer Studio"; project files are supplied for VC++
+version 7.1, but you can use older versions of VC++.  Notice that you should use
+the same version of VC++that was used to build Python itself. The example files
+described here are distributed with the Python sources in the
+:file:`PC\\example_nt\\` directory.
+
+#. **Copy the example files** ---  The :file:`example_nt` directory is a
+   subdirectory of the :file:`PC` directory, in order to keep all the PC-specific
+   files under the same directory in the source distribution.  However, the
+   :file:`example_nt` directory can't actually be used from this location.  You
+   first need to copy or move it up one level, so that :file:`example_nt` is a
+   sibling of the :file:`PC` and :file:`Include` directories.  Do all your work
+   from within this new location.
+
+#. **Open the project** ---  From VC++, use the :menuselection:`File --> Open
+   Solution` dialog (not :menuselection:`File --> Open`!).  Navigate to and select
+   the file :file:`example.sln`, in the *copy* of the :file:`example_nt` directory
+   you made above.  Click Open.
+
+#. **Build the example DLL** ---  In order to check that everything is set up
+   right, try building:
+
+#. Select a configuration.  This step is optional.  Choose
+   :menuselection:`Build --> Configuration Manager --> Active Solution Configuration`
+   and select either :guilabel:`Release`  or :guilabel:`Debug`.  If you skip this
+   step, VC++ will use the Debug configuration by default.
+
+#. Build the DLL.  Choose :menuselection:`Build --> Build Solution`.  This
+   creates all intermediate and result files in a subdirectory called either
+   :file:`Debug` or :file:`Release`, depending on which configuration you selected
+   in the preceding step.
+
+#. **Testing the debug-mode DLL** ---  Once the Debug build has succeeded, bring
+   up a DOS box, and change to the :file:`example_nt\\Debug` directory.  You should
+   now be able to repeat the following session (``C>`` is the DOS prompt, ``>>>``
+   is the Python prompt; note that build information and various debug output from
+   Python may not match this screen dump exactly)::
+
+      C>..\..\PCbuild\python_d
+      Adding parser accelerators ...
+      Done.
+      Python 2.2 (#28, Dec 19 2001, 23:26:37) [MSC 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
+      Type "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+      >>> import example
+      [4897 refs]
+      >>> example.foo()
+      Hello, world
+      [4903 refs]
+      >>>
+
+   Congratulations!  You've successfully built your first Python extension module.
+
+#. **Creating your own project** ---  Choose a name and create a directory for
+   it.  Copy your C sources into it.  Note that the module source file name does
+   not necessarily have to match the module name, but the name of the
+   initialization function should match the module name --- you can only import a
+   module :mod:`spam` if its initialization function is called :cfunc:`initspam`,
+   and it should call :cfunc:`Py_InitModule` with the string ``"spam"`` as its
+   first argument (use the minimal :file:`example.c` in this directory as a guide).
+   By convention, it lives in a file called :file:`spam.c` or :file:`spammodule.c`.
+   The output file should be called :file:`spam.dll` or :file:`spam.pyd` (the
+   latter is supported to avoid confusion with a system library :file:`spam.dll` to
+   which your module could be a Python interface) in Release mode, or
+   :file:`spam_d.dll` or :file:`spam_d.pyd` in Debug mode.
+
+   Now your options are:
+
+#. Copy :file:`example.sln` and :file:`example.vcproj`, rename them to
+      :file:`spam.\*`, and edit them by hand, or
+
+#. Create a brand new project; instructions are below.
+
+   In either case, copy :file:`example_nt\\example.def` to :file:`spam\\spam.def`,
+   and edit the new :file:`spam.def` so its second line contains the string
+   '``initspam``'.  If you created a new project yourself, add the file
+   :file:`spam.def` to the project now.  (This is an annoying little file with only
+   two lines.  An alternative approach is to forget about the :file:`.def` file,
+   and add the option :option:`/export:initspam` somewhere to the Link settings, by
+   manually editing the setting in Project Properties dialog).
+
+#. **Creating a brand new project** ---  Use the :menuselection:`File --> New
+   --> Project` dialog to create a new Project Workspace.  Select :guilabel:`Visual
+   C++ Projects/Win32/ Win32 Project`, enter the name (``spam``), and make sure the
+   Location is set to parent of the :file:`spam` directory you have created (which
+   should be a direct subdirectory of the Python build tree, a sibling of
+   :file:`Include` and :file:`PC`).  Select Win32 as the platform (in my version,
+   this is the only choice).  Make sure the Create new workspace radio button is
+   selected.  Click OK.
+
+   You should now create the file :file:`spam.def` as instructed in the previous
+   section. Add the source files to the project, using :menuselection:`Project -->
+   Add Existing Item`. Set the pattern to ``*.*`` and select both :file:`spam.c`
+   and :file:`spam.def` and click OK.  (Inserting them one by one is fine too.)
+
+   Now open the :menuselection:`Project --> spam properties` dialog. You only need
+   to change a few settings.  Make sure :guilabel:`All Configurations` is selected
+   from the :guilabel:`Settings for:` dropdown list.  Select the C/C++ tab.  Choose
+   the General category in the popup menu at the top.  Type the following text in
+   the entry box labeled :guilabel:`Additional Include Directories`::
+
+      ..\Include,..\PC
+
+   Then, choose the General category in the Linker tab, and enter ::
+
+      ..\PCbuild
+
+   in the text box labelled :guilabel:`Additional library Directories`.
+
+   Now you need to add some mode-specific settings:
+
+   Select :guilabel:`Release` in the :guilabel:`Configuration` dropdown list.
+   Choose the :guilabel:`Link` tab, choose the :guilabel:`Input` category, and
+   append ``pythonXY.lib`` to the list in the :guilabel:`Additional Dependencies`
+   box.
+
+   Select :guilabel:`Debug` in the :guilabel:`Configuration` dropdown list, and
+   append ``pythonXY_d.lib`` to the list in the :guilabel:`Additional Dependencies`
+   box.  Then click the C/C++ tab, select :guilabel:`Code Generation`, and select
+   :guilabel:`Multi-threaded Debug DLL` from the :guilabel:`Runtime library`
+   dropdown list.
+
+   Select :guilabel:`Release` again from the :guilabel:`Configuration` dropdown
+   list.  Select :guilabel:`Multi-threaded DLL` from the :guilabel:`Runtime
+   library` dropdown list.
+
+If your module creates a new type, you may have trouble with this line::
+
+   PyObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type)
+
+Change it to::
+
+   PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
+
+and add the following to the module initialization function::
+
+   MyObject_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;
+
+Refer to section 3 of the `Python FAQ <http://www.python.org/doc/FAQ.html>`_ for
+details on why you must do this.
+
+
+.. _dynamic-linking:
+
+Differences Between Unix and Windows
+====================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Chris Phoenix <cphoenix@best.com>
+
+
+Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading of
+code.  Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically loaded, be aware
+of how your system works.
+
+In Unix, a shared object (:file:`.so`) file contains code to be used by the
+program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to find in the
+program.  When the file is joined to the program, all references to those
+functions and data in the file's code are changed to point to the actual
+locations in the program where the functions and data are placed in memory.
+This is basically a link operation.
+
+In Windows, a dynamic-link library (:file:`.dll`) file has no dangling
+references.  Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a lookup
+table.  So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime to refer to the
+program's memory; instead, the code already uses the DLL's lookup table, and the
+lookup table is modified at runtime to point to the functions and data.
+
+In Unix, there is only one type of library file (:file:`.a`) which contains code
+from several object files (:file:`.o`).  During the link step to create a shared
+object file (:file:`.so`), the linker may find that it doesn't know where an
+identifier is defined.  The linker will look for it in the object files in the
+libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the code from that object file.
+
+In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an import
+library (both called :file:`.lib`).  A static library is like a Unix :file:`.a`
+file; it contains code to be included as necessary. An import library is
+basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain identifier is legal,
+and will be present in the program when the DLL is loaded.  So the linker uses
+the information from the import library to build the lookup table for using
+identifiers that are not included in the DLL.  When an application or a DLL is
+linked, an import library may be generated, which will need to be used for all
+future DLLs that depend on the symbols in the application or DLL.
+
+Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should share
+another block of code A.  On Unix, you would *not* pass :file:`A.a` to the
+linker for :file:`B.so` and :file:`C.so`; that would cause it to be included
+twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy.  In Windows, building
+:file:`A.dll` will also build :file:`A.lib`.  You *do* pass :file:`A.lib` to the
+linker for B and C.  :file:`A.lib` does not contain code; it just contains
+information which will be used at runtime to access A's code.
+
+In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using ``import spam``; it
+gives you access to spam's names, but does not create a separate copy.  On Unix,
+linking with a library is more like ``from spam import *``; it does create a
+separate copy.
+
+
+.. _win-dlls:
+
+Using DLLs in Practice
+======================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Chris Phoenix <cphoenix@best.com>
+
+
+Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers may or
+may not work (though Borland seems to).  The rest of this section is MSVC++
+specific.
+
+When creating DLLs in Windows, you must pass :file:`pythonXY.lib` to the linker.
+To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could
+use these commands::
+
+   cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
+   cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib
+
+The first command created three files: :file:`spam.obj`, :file:`spam.dll` and
+:file:`spam.lib`.  :file:`Spam.dll` does not contain any Python functions (such
+as :cfunc:`PyArg_ParseTuple`), but it does know how to find the Python code
+thanks to :file:`pythonXY.lib`.
+
+The second command created :file:`ni.dll` (and :file:`.obj` and :file:`.lib`),
+which knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from the
+Python executable.
+
+Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table.  If you want any other
+modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you have to say
+``_declspec(dllexport)``, as in ``void _declspec(dllexport) initspam(void)`` or
+``PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)``.
+
+Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not really
+need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them, use the Project
+Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify *ignore default libraries*.  Add the
+correct :file:`msvcrtxx.lib` to the list of libraries.
+