Doc/library/idle.rst

.. _idle:

IDLE
====

.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>

**Source code:** :source:`Lib/idlelib/`

.. index::
   single: IDLE
   single: Python Editor
   single: Integrated Development Environment

--------------

IDLE is Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment.

IDLE has the following features:

* coded in 100% pure Python, using the :mod:`tkinter` GUI toolkit

* cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and Mac OS X

* Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing
  of code input, output, and error messages

* multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
  smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features

* search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
  through multiple files (grep)

* debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing
  of global and local namespaces

* configuration, browsers, and other dialogs

Menus
-----

IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.  It is
possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  Output windows, such
as used for Edit / Find in Files, are a subtype of edit window.  They currently
have the same top menu as Editor windows but a different default title and
context menu.

IDLE's menus dynamically change based on which window is currently selected.
Each menu documented below indicates which window type it is associated with.

File menu (Shell and Editor)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

New File
   Create a new file editing window.

Open...
   Open an existing file with an Open dialog.

Recent Files
   Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.

Open Module...
   Open an existing module (searches sys.path).

.. index::
   single: Class browser
   single: Path browser

Class Browser
   Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in a
   tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.

Path Browser
   Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods in a
   tree structure.

Save
   Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.  Windows
   that have been changed since being opened or last saved have a \* before
   and after the window title.  If there is no associated file,
   do Save As instead.

Save As...
   Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved becomes the
   new associated file for the window.

Save Copy As...
   Save the current window to different file without changing the associated
   file.

Print Window
   Print the current window to the default printer.

Close
   Close the current window (ask to save if unsaved).

Exit
   Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved windows).

Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Undo
   Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000 changes may
   be undone.

Redo
   Redo the last undone change to the current window.

Cut
   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.

Copy
   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste
   Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.

The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.

Select All
   Select the entire contents of the current window.

Find...
   Open a search dialog with many options

Find Again
   Repeat the last search, if there is one.

Find Selection
   Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.

Find in Files...
   Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.

Replace...
   Open a search-and-replace dialog.

Go to Line
   Move cursor to the line number requested and make that line visible.

Show Completions
   Open a scrollable list allowing selection of keywords and attributes. See
   Completions in the Tips sections below.

Expand Word
   Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same window;
   repeat to get a different expansion.

Show call tip
   After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with
   function parameter hints.

Show surrounding parens
   Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.

Format menu (Editor window only)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Indent Region
   Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Dedent Region
   Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Comment Out Region
   Insert ## in front of selected lines.

Uncomment Region
   Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.

Tabify Region
   Turn *leading* stretches of spaces into tabs. (Note: We recommend using
   4 space blocks to indent Python code.)

Untabify Region
   Turn *all* tabs into the correct number of spaces.

Toggle Tabs
   Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.

New Indent Width
   Open a dialog to change indent width. The accepted default by the Python
   community is 4 spaces.

Format Paragraph
   Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment block or
   multiline string or selected line in a string.  All lines in the
   paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N defaults to 72.

Strip trailing whitespace
   Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last
   non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to each line,
   including lines within multiline strings.

.. index::
   single: Run script

Run menu (Editor window only)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Python Shell
   Open or wake up the Python Shell window.

Check Module
   Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window. If the
   module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user to save or
   autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle Settings dialog.  If
   there is a syntax error, the approximate location is indicated in the
   Editor window.

Run Module
   Do Check Module (above).  If no error, restart the shell to clean the
   environment, then execute the module.  Output is displayed in the Shell
   window.  Note that output requires use of ``print`` or ``write``.
   When execution is complete, the Shell retains focus and displays a prompt.
   At this point, one may interactively explore the result of execution.
   This is similar to executing a file with ``python -i file`` at a command
   line.

Shell menu (Shell window only)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

View Last Restart
  Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.

Restart Shell
  Restart the shell to clean the environment.

Interrupt Execution
  Stop a running program.

Debug menu (Shell window only)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Go to File/Line
   Look on the current line. with the cursor, and the line above for a filename
   and line number.  If found, open the file if not already open, and show the
   line.  Use this to view source lines referenced in an exception traceback
   and lines found by Find in Files. Also available in the context menu of
   the Shell window and Output windows.

.. index::
   single: debugger
   single: stack viewer

Debugger (toggle)
   When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor will run
   under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set with the context
   menu.  This feature is still incomplete and somewhat experimental.

Stack Viewer
   Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget, with
   access to locals and globals.

Auto-open Stack Viewer
   Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled exception.

Options menu (Shell and Editor)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Configure IDLE
   Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the following:
   fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes, startup windows and
   size, additional help sources, and extensions (see below).  On OS X,
   open the configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in the application
   menu.  To use a new built-in color theme (IDLE Dark) with older IDLEs,
   save it as a new custom theme.

   Non-default user settings are saved in a .idlerc directory in the user's
   home directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
   by editing or deleting one or more of the files in .idlerc.

Code Context (toggle)(Editor Window only)
   Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block context
   of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.  Clicking a
   line in this pane exposes that line at the top of the editor.

Window menu (Shell and Editor)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Zoom Height
   Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height. The initial size
   defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the General tab of the
   Configure IDLE dialog.

The rest of this menu lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring
it to the foreground (deiconifying it if necessary).

Help menu (Shell and Editor)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

About IDLE
   Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.

IDLE Help
   Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic editing and
   navigation, and other tips.

Python Docs
   Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web browser
   and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python documentation.

Turtle Demo
   Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle drawings.

Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog under
the General tab. See the "Help sources" subsection below for more
on Help menu choices.

.. index::
   single: Cut
   single: Copy
   single: Paste
   single: Set Breakpoint
   single: Clear Breakpoint
   single: breakpoints

Context Menus
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on OS X).
Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the Edit menu.

Cut
   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.

Copy
   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste
   Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.

Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint set are
specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running under the
debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user's .idlerc directory.

Set Breakpoint
   Set a breakpoint on the current line.

Clear Breakpoint
   Clear the breakpoint on that line.

Shell and Output windows also have the following.

Go to file/line
   Same as in Debug menu.

The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the
the *Python Shell window* subsection below.

Squeeze
   If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output between
   the code above and the prompt below down to a 'Squeezed text' label.


Editing and navigation
----------------------

Editor windows
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings
and how you start IDLE.  Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
one open editor window for a given file.

The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the version
of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains the line
number ('Ln') and column number ('Col').  Line numbers start with 1;
column numbers with 0.

IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.

Key bindings
^^^^^^^^^^^^

In this section, 'C' refers to the :kbd:`Control` key on Windows and Unix and
the :kbd:`Command` key on Mac OSX.

* :kbd:`Backspace` deletes to the left; :kbd:`Del` deletes to the right

* :kbd:`C-Backspace` delete word left; :kbd:`C-Del` delete word to the right

* Arrow keys and :kbd:`Page Up`/:kbd:`Page Down` to move around

* :kbd:`C-LeftArrow` and :kbd:`C-RightArrow` moves by words

* :kbd:`Home`/:kbd:`End` go to begin/end of line

* :kbd:`C-Home`/:kbd:`C-End` go to begin/end of file

* Some useful Emacs bindings are inherited from Tcl/Tk:

   * :kbd:`C-a` beginning of line

   * :kbd:`C-e` end of line

   * :kbd:`C-k` kill line (but doesn't put it in clipboard)

   * :kbd:`C-l` center window around the insertion point

   * :kbd:`C-b` go backward one character without deleting (usually you can
     also use the cursor key for this)

   * :kbd:`C-f` go forward one character without deleting (usually you can
     also use the cursor key for this)

   * :kbd:`C-p` go up one line (usually you can also use the cursor key for
     this)

   * :kbd:`C-d` delete next character

Standard keybindings (like :kbd:`C-c` to copy and :kbd:`C-v` to paste)
may work.  Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.

Automatic indentation
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces (in the
Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break, return etc.)
the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation, :kbd:`Backspace` deletes up
to 4 spaces if they are there. :kbd:`Tab` inserts spaces (in the Python
Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent width. Currently, tabs
are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk limitations.

See also the indent/dedent region commands in the edit menu.

Completions
^^^^^^^^^^^

Completions are supplied for functions, classes, and attributes of classes,
both built-in and user-defined. Completions are also provided for
filenames.

The AutoCompleteWindow (ACW) will open after a predefined delay (default is
two seconds) after a '.' or (in a string) an os.sep is typed. If after one
of those characters (plus zero or more other characters) a tab is typed
the ACW will open immediately if a possible continuation is found.

If there is only one possible completion for the characters entered, a
:kbd:`Tab` will supply that completion without opening the ACW.

'Show Completions' will force open a completions window, by default the
:kbd:`C-space` will open a completions window. In an empty
string, this will contain the files in the current directory. On a
blank line, it will contain the built-in and user-defined functions and
classes in the current namespaces, plus any modules imported. If some
characters have been entered, the ACW will attempt to be more specific.

If a string of characters is typed, the ACW selection will jump to the
entry most closely matching those characters.  Entering a :kbd:`tab` will
cause the longest non-ambiguous match to be entered in the Editor window or
Shell.  Two :kbd:`tab` in a row will supply the current ACW selection, as
will return or a double click.  Cursor keys, Page Up/Down, mouse selection,
and the scroll wheel all operate on the ACW.

"Hidden" attributes can be accessed by typing the beginning of hidden
name after a '.', e.g. '_'. This allows access to modules with
``__all__`` set, or to class-private attributes.

Completions and the 'Expand Word' facility can save a lot of typing!

Completions are currently limited to those in the namespaces. Names in
an Editor window which are not via ``__main__`` and :data:`sys.modules` will
not be found.  Run the module once with your imports to correct this situation.
Note that IDLE itself places quite a few modules in sys.modules, so
much can be found by default, e.g. the re module.

If you don't like the ACW popping up unbidden, simply make the delay
longer or disable the extension.

Calltips
^^^^^^^^

A calltip is shown when one types :kbd:`(` after the name of an *accessible*
function.  A name expression may include dots and subscripts.  A calltip
remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved out of the argument area,
or :kbd:`)` is typed.  When the cursor is in the argument part of a definition,
the menu or shortcut display a calltip.

A calltip consists of the function signature and the first line of the
docstring.  For builtins without an accessible signature, the calltip
consists of all lines up the fifth line or the first blank line.  These
details may change.

The set of *accessible* functions depends on what modules have been imported
into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
and what definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter ``itertools.count(``.  A calltip
appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own use.
(This could change.)  Enter ``turtle.write(`` and nothing appears.  Idle does
not import turtle.  The menu or shortcut do nothing either.  Enter
``import turtle`` and then ``turtle.write(`` will work.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.  One
might want to run a file after writing the import statements at the top,
or immediately run an existing file before editing.

Python Shell window
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

The editing features described above work when entering code interactively.
IDLE's Shell window also responds to the following keys.

* :kbd:`C-c` interrupts executing command

* :kbd:`C-d` sends end-of-file; closes window if typed at a ``>>>`` prompt

* :kbd:`Alt-/` (Expand word) is also useful to reduce typing

  Command history

  * :kbd:`Alt-p` retrieves previous command matching what you have typed. On
    OS X use :kbd:`C-p`.

  * :kbd:`Alt-n` retrieves next. On OS X use :kbd:`C-n`.

  * :kbd:`Return` while on any previous command retrieves that command

Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
'Squeezed text' label.  This is done automatically for output over N lines
(N = 50 by default).  N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General
page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be squeezed by
right clicking on the output.  This can be useful for extra long lines.

Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.
It can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
right-clicking the label.

Text colors
^^^^^^^^^^^

Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special meanings.
For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user output, and
user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an editor, these are
keywords, builtin class and function names, names following ``class`` and
``def``, strings, and comments. For any text window, these are the cursor (when
present), found text (when possible), and selected text.

Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is occasionally
visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure IDLE dialog
Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines in the editor and
text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.


Startup and code execution
--------------------------

Upon startup with the ``-s`` option, IDLE will execute the file referenced by
the environment variables :envvar:`IDLESTARTUP` or :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP`.
IDLE first checks for ``IDLESTARTUP``; if ``IDLESTARTUP`` is present the file
referenced is run.  If ``IDLESTARTUP`` is not present, IDLE checks for
``PYTHONSTARTUP``.  Files referenced by these environment variables are
convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from the IDLE
shell, or for executing import statements to import common modules.

In addition, ``Tk`` also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that the
Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is ``.Idle.py`` and is
looked for in the user's home directory.  Statements in this file will be
executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not useful for importing
functions to be used from IDLE's Python shell.

Command line usage
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

.. code-block:: none

   idle.py [-c command] [-d] [-e] [-h] [-i] [-r file] [-s] [-t title] [-] [arg] ...

   -c command  run command in the shell window
   -d          enable debugger and open shell window
   -e          open editor window
   -h          print help message with legal combinations and exit
   -i          open shell window
   -r file     run file in shell window
   -s          run $IDLESTARTUP or $PYTHONSTARTUP first, in shell window
   -t title    set title of shell window
   -           run stdin in shell (- must be last option before args)

If there are arguments:

* If ``-``, ``-c``, or ``r`` is used, all arguments are placed in
  ``sys.argv[1:...]`` and ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``''``, ``'-c'``,
  or ``'-r'``.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the default
  set in the Options dialog.

* Otherwise, arguments are files opened for editing and
  ``sys.argv`` reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.

Startup failure
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the user
code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever the Shell
starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider line that says
'RESTART'). If the user process fails to connect to the GUI process, it
displays a ``Tk`` error box with a 'cannot connect' message that directs the
user here.  It then exits.

A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
standard library module, such as *random.py* and *tkinter.py*. When such a
file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to be run,
IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to rename the
user file.

Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program may
stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
connections.

Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo the
clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be easiest to
completely remove Python and start over.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
Manager to detect and stop one.  Sometimes a restart initiated by a program
crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail to connect.  Dismissing
the error box or Restart Shell on the Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
~/.idlerc/ (~ is one's home directory).  If there is a problem, an error
message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches, this can
be prevented by never editing the files by hand, using the configuration
dialog, under Options, instead Options.  Once it happens, the solution may
be to delete one or more of the configuration files.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console, try
starting from a console (``python -m idlelib)`` and see if a message appears.

Running user code
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default method,
directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal window.
However, the different interface and operation occasionally affect
visible results.  For instance, ``sys.modules`` starts with more entries,
and ``threading.activeCount()`` returns 2 instead of 1.

By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the execution
process, it replaces ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout``, and ``sys.stderr``
with objects that get input from and send output to the Shell window.
The original values stored in ``sys.__stdin__``, ``sys.__stdout__``, and
``sys.__stderr__`` are not touched, but may be ``None``.

When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.

IDLE's standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by modules
such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ``input`` from sys.stdin
or ``print`` or ``write`` to sys.stdout or sys.stderr,
IDLE should be started in a command line window.  The secondary subprocess
will then be attached to that window for input and output.

If ``sys`` is reset by user code, such as with ``importlib.reload(sys)``,
IDLE's changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the screen
will not work correctly.

Developing tkinter applications
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter ``import tkinter as tk;
root = tk.Tk()`` in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the same
in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also enter
``root.update()`` to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in the
background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50 milleseconds.
Next enter ``b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack()``.  Again,
nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one enters ``root.update()``.

Most tkinter programs run ``root.mainloop()``, which usually does not
return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
``python -i`` or from an IDLE editor, a ``>>>`` shell prompt does not
appear until ``mainloop()`` returns, at which time there is nothing left
to interact with.

When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.

Running without a subprocess
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a socket,
which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is not
externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the Internet.
If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify you.
Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the problem
may be either a firewall blocking the connection or misconfiguration of
a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed, one can run Idle with
the -n command line switch.

If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create
the subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However,
in this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
re-import any specific items (e.g. from foo import baz) if the changes
are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
with the default subprocess if at all possible.

.. deprecated:: 3.4


Help and preferences
--------------------

Help sources
^^^^^^^^^^^^

Help menu entry "IDLE Help" displays a formatted html version of the
IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
Navigate through the text with a mousewheel,
the scrollbar, or up and down arrow keys held down.
Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button and select a section
header in the opened box.

Help menu entry "Python Docs" opens the extensive sources of help,
including tutorials, available at docs.python.org/x.y, where 'x.y'
is the currently running Python version.  If your system
has an off-line copy of the docs (this may be an installation option),
that will be opened instead.

Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time using the
General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog .

Setting preferences
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.  Keys can be user defined;
IDLE ships with four built-in key sets. In addition, a user can create a
custom key set in the Configure IDLE dialog under the keys tab.

Extensions
^^^^^^^^^^

IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog. See the
beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
also used for testing.