diff --git a/ChangeLog b/ChangeLog
index e00a831..3c5a358 100644
--- a/ChangeLog
+++ b/ChangeLog
@@ -1,3 +1,7 @@
+2010-10-07  Jean-Paul Calderone  <exarkun@twistedmatrix.com>
+
+	* Initial support for Python 3.x throughout the codebase.
+
 2010-09-14  Jean-Paul Calderone  <exarkun@twistedmatrix.com>
 
 	* OpenSSL/crypto/netscape_spki.c: Fix an off-by-one mistake in the
diff --git a/OpenSSL/__init__.py b/OpenSSL/__init__.py
index 6f393ff..51dfdc9 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/__init__.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/__init__.py
@@ -8,5 +8,21 @@
 """
 pyOpenSSL - A simple wrapper around the OpenSSL library
 """
-import rand, crypto, SSL, tsafe
-from version import __version__
+
+import sys
+try:
+    orig = sys.getdlopenflags()
+except AttributeError:
+    pass
+else:
+    sys.setdlopenflags(2 | 256)
+    from OpenSSL import crypto
+    sys.setdlopenflags(orig)
+    del orig
+del sys
+
+from OpenSSL import rand, crypto, SSL
+from OpenSSL.version import __version__
+
+__all__ = [
+    'rand', 'crypto', 'SSL', 'tsafe', '__version__']
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/crl.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/crl.c
index 8e1c135..bc76f22 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/crl.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/crl.c
@@ -116,7 +116,10 @@
 @type cert: L{X509}\n\
 @param key: Used to sign CRL.\n\
 @type key: L{PKey}\n\
-@return: None\n\
+@param type: The export format, either L{FILETYPE_PEM}, L{FILETYPE_ASN1}, or L{FILETYPE_TEXT}.\n\
+@param days: The number of days until the next update of this CRL.\n\
+@type days: L{int}\n\
+@return: L{str}\n\
 ";
 static PyObject *
 crypto_CRL_export(crypto_CRLObj *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds) {
@@ -172,7 +175,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
     buf_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &temp);
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
     BIO_free(bio);
     return buffer;
 }
@@ -207,11 +210,6 @@
 #undef ADD_METHOD
 
 
-static PyObject *
-crypto_CRL_getattr(crypto_CRLObj *self, char *name) {
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_CRL_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 static void
 crypto_CRL_dealloc(crypto_CRLObj *self) {
     X509_CRL_free(self->crl);
@@ -237,14 +235,13 @@
 }
 
 PyTypeObject crypto_CRL_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "CRL",
     sizeof(crypto_CRLObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_CRL_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_CRL_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.c
index d9f1a4e..1a122b2 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.c
@@ -24,6 +24,18 @@
 
 PyObject *crypto_Error;
 
+int crypto_byte_converter(PyObject *input, void* output) {
+    char **message = output;
+    if (input == Py_None) {
+        *message = NULL;
+    } else if (PyBytes_CheckExact(input)) {
+        *message = PyBytes_AsString(input);
+    } else {
+        return 0;
+    }
+    return 1;
+}
+
 static int
 global_passphrase_callback(char *buf, int len, int rwflag, void *cb_arg)
 {
@@ -36,15 +48,15 @@
     Py_DECREF(argv);
     if (ret == NULL)
         return 0;
-    if (!PyString_Check(ret))
+    if (!PyBytes_Check(ret))
     {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "String expected");
         return 0;
     }
-    nchars = PyString_Size(ret);
+    nchars = PyBytes_Size(ret);
     if (nchars > len)
         nchars = len;
-    strncpy(buf, PyString_AsString(ret), nchars);
+    strncpy(buf, PyBytes_AsString(ret), nchars);
     return nchars;
 }
 
@@ -77,10 +89,10 @@
 
     if (pw != NULL)
     {
-        if (PyString_Check(pw))
+        if (PyBytes_Check(pw))
         {
             cb = NULL;
-            cb_arg = PyString_AsString(pw);
+            cb_arg = PyBytes_AsString(pw);
         }
         else if (PyCallable_Check(pw))
         {
@@ -167,10 +179,10 @@
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "Invalid cipher name");
             return NULL;
         }
-        if (PyString_Check(pw))
+        if (PyBytes_Check(pw))
         {
             cb = NULL;
-            cb_arg = PyString_AsString(pw);
+            cb_arg = PyBytes_AsString(pw);
         }
         else if (PyCallable_Check(pw))
         {
@@ -220,7 +232,7 @@
     }
 
     buf_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &temp);
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
     BIO_free(bio);
 
     return buffer;
@@ -323,7 +335,7 @@
     }
 
     buf_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &temp);
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
     BIO_free(bio);
 
     return buffer;
@@ -426,7 +438,7 @@
     }
 
     buf_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &temp);
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
     BIO_free(bio);
 
     return buffer;
@@ -578,7 +590,7 @@
         return NULL;
 
     str = X509_verify_cert_error_string(errnum);
-    return PyString_FromString(str);
+    return PyText_FromString(str);
 }
 
 static char crypto_exception_from_error_queue_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -612,8 +624,9 @@
     EVP_MD_CTX md_ctx;
     unsigned char sig_buf[512];
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O!ss:sign", &crypto_PKey_Type,
-                          &pkey, &data, &digest_name)) {
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(
+            args, "O!" BYTESTRING_FMT "s:sign", &crypto_PKey_Type,
+            &pkey, &data, &digest_name)) {
         return NULL;
     }
 
@@ -632,7 +645,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize((char*)sig_buf, sig_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize((char*)sig_buf, sig_len);
     return buffer;
 }
 
@@ -657,8 +670,11 @@
     EVP_MD_CTX md_ctx;
     EVP_PKEY *pkey;
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O!t#ss:verify", &crypto_X509_Type, &cert, &signature, &sig_len,
-                          &data, &digest_name)) {
+#ifdef PY3
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O!" BYTESTRING_FMT "#" BYTESTRING_FMT "s:verify", &crypto_X509_Type, &cert, &signature, &sig_len, &data, &digest_name)) {
+#else
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O!t#ss:verify", &crypto_X509_Type, &cert, &signature, &sig_len, &data, &digest_name)) {
+#endif
         return NULL;
     }
 
@@ -772,6 +788,15 @@
 
 #endif
 
+#ifdef PY3
+static struct PyModuleDef cryptomodule = {
+    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+    "crypto",
+    crypto_doc,
+    -1,
+    crypto_methods
+};
+#endif
 
 /*
  * Initialize crypto sub module
@@ -779,19 +804,27 @@
  * Arguments: None
  * Returns:   None
  */
-void
-initcrypto(void)
-{
+PyOpenSSL_MODINIT(crypto) {
+#ifndef PY3
     static void *crypto_API[crypto_API_pointers];
     PyObject *c_api_object;
+#endif
     PyObject *module;
 
     ERR_load_crypto_strings();
     OpenSSL_add_all_algorithms();
 
-    if ((module = Py_InitModule3("crypto", crypto_methods, crypto_doc)) == NULL)
-        return;
+#ifdef PY3
+    module = PyModule_Create(&cryptomodule);
+#else
+    module = Py_InitModule3("crypto", crypto_methods, crypto_doc);
+#endif
 
+    if (module == NULL) {
+        PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
+    }
+
+#ifndef PY3
     /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
     crypto_API[crypto_X509_New_NUM]      = (void *)crypto_X509_New;
     crypto_API[crypto_X509Name_New_NUM]  = (void *)crypto_X509Name_New;
@@ -804,6 +837,7 @@
     c_api_object = PyCObject_FromVoidPtr((void *)crypto_API, NULL);
     if (c_api_object != NULL)
         PyModule_AddObject(module, "_C_API", c_api_object);
+#endif
 
     crypto_Error = PyErr_NewException("OpenSSL.crypto.Error", NULL, NULL);
     if (crypto_Error == NULL)
@@ -844,6 +878,10 @@
         goto error;
     if (!init_crypto_revoked(module))
         goto error;
+
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(module);
+
 error:
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
     ;
 }
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.h b/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.h
index 057b5dd..75961a7 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.h
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/crypto.h
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@
 
 #define crypto_API_pointers             8
 
-#ifdef crypto_MODULE
+#if defined(PY3) || defined(crypto_MODULE)
 
 extern crypto_X509_New_RETURN      crypto_X509_New      crypto_X509_New_PROTO;
 extern crypto_X509Name_New_RETURN  crypto_X509Name_New  crypto_X509Name_New_PROTO;
@@ -74,6 +74,8 @@
 extern crypto_PKCS7_New_RETURN     crypto_PKCS7_New     crypto_PKCS7_New_PROTO;
 extern crypto_NetscapeSPKI_New_RETURN  crypto_NetscapeSPKI_New  crypto_NetscapeSPKI_New_PROTO;
 
+int crypto_byte_converter(PyObject *input, void *output);
+
 #else /* crypto_MODULE */
 
 extern void **crypto_API;
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/netscape_spki.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/netscape_spki.c
index ada5ef6..ff40962 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/netscape_spki.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/netscape_spki.c
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)answer);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)answer);
 }
 
 static char crypto_NetscapeSPKI_b64_encode_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@
         return NULL;
 
     str = NETSCAPE_SPKI_b64_encode(self->netscape_spki);
-    return PyString_FromString(str);
+    return PyBytes_FromString(str);
 }
 
 
@@ -243,29 +243,14 @@
 };
 #undef ADD_METHOD
 
-/*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The NetscapeSPKI object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_NetscapeSPKI_getattr(crypto_NetscapeSPKIObj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_NetscapeSPKI_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_NetscapeSPKI_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "NetscapeSPKI",
     sizeof(crypto_NetscapeSPKIObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_NetscapeSPKI_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_NetscapeSPKI_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs12.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs12.c
index 2302242..81d6074 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs12.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs12.c
@@ -202,8 +202,8 @@
         kwlist, &name))
         return NULL;
 
-    if (name != Py_None && ! PyString_CheckExact(name)) {
-        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "name must be a str or None");
+    if (name != Py_None && ! PyBytes_CheckExact(name)) {
+        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "name must be a byte string or None");
         return NULL;
     }
 
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@
         }
     }
     if (self->friendlyname != Py_None) {
-        friendly_name = PyString_AsString(self->friendlyname);
+        friendly_name = PyBytes_AsString(self->friendlyname);
     }
 
     p12 = PKCS12_create(passphrase, friendly_name, pkey, x509, cacerts,
@@ -278,7 +278,7 @@
     bio = BIO_new(BIO_s_mem());
     i2d_PKCS12_bio(bio, p12);
     buf_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &temp);
-    buffer = PyString_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
+    buffer = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(temp, buf_len);
     BIO_free(bio);
     return buffer;
 }
@@ -367,7 +367,8 @@
          *  certificate. */
         alias_str = X509_alias_get0(cert, &alias_len);
         if (alias_str) {
-            if (!(self->friendlyname = Py_BuildValue("s#", alias_str, alias_len))) {
+            self->friendlyname = Py_BuildValue(BYTESTRING_FMT "#", alias_str, alias_len);
+            if (!self->friendlyname) {
                 /*
                  * XXX Untested
                  */
@@ -439,20 +440,6 @@
 }
 
 /*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The PKCS12 object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_PKCS12_getattr(crypto_PKCS12Obj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_PKCS12_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
-/*
  * Call the visitproc on all contained objects.
  *
  * Arguments: self - The PKCS12 object
@@ -512,14 +499,13 @@
 }
 
 PyTypeObject crypto_PKCS12_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "PKCS12",
     sizeof(crypto_PKCS12Obj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_PKCS12_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_PKCS12_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs7.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs7.c
index 1cb0813..fff95e2 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs7.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkcs7.c
@@ -24,9 +24,9 @@
         return NULL;
 
     if (PKCS7_type_is_signed(self->pkcs7))
-        return PyInt_FromLong(1L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(1L);
     else
-        return PyInt_FromLong(0L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(0L);
 }
 
 static char crypto_PKCS7_type_is_enveloped_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -42,9 +42,9 @@
         return NULL;
 
     if (PKCS7_type_is_enveloped(self->pkcs7))
-        return PyInt_FromLong(1L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(1L);
     else
-        return PyInt_FromLong(0L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(0L);
 }
 
 static char crypto_PKCS7_type_is_signedAndEnveloped_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -60,9 +60,9 @@
         return NULL;
 
     if (PKCS7_type_is_signedAndEnveloped(self->pkcs7))
-        return PyInt_FromLong(1L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(1L);
     else
-        return PyInt_FromLong(0L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(0L);
 }
 
 static char crypto_PKCS7_type_is_data_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -78,9 +78,9 @@
         return NULL;
 
     if (PKCS7_type_is_data(self->pkcs7))
-        return PyInt_FromLong(1L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(1L);
     else
-        return PyInt_FromLong(0L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(0L);
 }
 
 static char crypto_PKCS7_get_type_name_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@
     /* 
      * return a string with the typename
      */
-    return PyString_FromString(OBJ_nid2sn(OBJ_obj2nid(self->pkcs7->type)));
+    return PyBytes_FromString(OBJ_nid2sn(OBJ_obj2nid(self->pkcs7->type)));
 }
 
 /*
@@ -160,29 +160,14 @@
     PyObject_Del(self);
 }
 
-/*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The PKCS7 object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_PKCS7_getattr(crypto_PKCS7Obj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_PKCS7_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_PKCS7_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "PKCS7",
     sizeof(crypto_PKCS7Obj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_PKCS7_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_PKCS7_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
@@ -191,7 +176,19 @@
     NULL, /* as_mapping */
     NULL, /* hash */
     NULL, /* call */
-    NULL  /* str */
+    NULL,  /* str */
+    NULL, /* getattro */
+    NULL, /* setattro */
+    NULL, /* as_buffer */
+    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
+    NULL, /* doc */
+    NULL, /* traverse */
+    NULL, /* clear */
+    NULL, /* tp_richcompare */
+    0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */
+    NULL, /* tp_iter */
+    NULL, /* tp_iternext */
+    crypto_PKCS7_methods, /* tp_methods */
 };
 
 /*
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkey.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkey.c
index 583a2a1..6494d2a 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/pkey.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/pkey.c
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":bits"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(EVP_PKEY_bits(self->pkey));
+    return PyLong_FromLong(EVP_PKEY_bits(self->pkey));
 }
 
 static char crypto_PKey_type_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":type"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(self->pkey->type);
+    return PyLong_FromLong(self->pkey->type);
 }
 
 
@@ -196,29 +196,14 @@
     PyObject_Del(self);
 }
 
-/*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The PKey object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_PKey_getattr(crypto_PKeyObj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_PKey_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_PKey_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "OpenSSL.crypto.PKey",
     sizeof(crypto_PKeyObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_PKey_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_PKey_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/revoked.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/revoked.c
index 3042c4d..e9b1297 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/revoked.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/revoked.c
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
     list = PyList_New(0);
     for (j = 0; j < NUM_REASONS; j++) {
         if(crl_reasons[j]) {
-            str = PyString_FromString(crl_reasons[j]);
+            str = PyBytes_FromString(crl_reasons[j]);
             PyList_Append(list, str);
             Py_DECREF(str);
         }
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@
 
     /* Convert to a Python string. */
     str_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &tmp_str);
-    str = PyString_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
+    str = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
 
     /* Cleanup */
     BIO_free(bio);
@@ -122,6 +122,7 @@
     return reason_code;
 }
 
+
 static char crypto_Revoked_set_reason_doc[] = "\n\
 Set the reason of a Revoked object.\n\
 \n\
@@ -136,8 +137,9 @@
     int reason_code;
     ASN1_ENUMERATED *rtmp = NULL;
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "z:set_reason",
-                                     kwlist, &reason_str)) {
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(
+            args, keywds, "O&:set_reason", kwlist,
+            crypto_byte_converter, &reason_str)) {
         return NULL;
     }
 
@@ -231,7 +233,7 @@
 static PyObject*
 crypto_Revoked_set_rev_date(crypto_RevokedObj *self, PyObject *args) {
     return _set_asn1_time(
-        "s:set_rev_date", self->revoked->revocationDate, args);
+        BYTESTRING_FMT ":set_rev_date", self->revoked->revocationDate, args);
 }
 
 /* The integer is converted to an upper-case hex string
@@ -256,7 +258,7 @@
 
     /* Convert to a Python string. */
     str_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &tmp_str);
-    str = PyString_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
+    str = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
 
     /* Cleanup */
     BIO_free(bio);
@@ -307,7 +309,7 @@
     BIGNUM *serial = NULL;
     ASN1_INTEGER *tmpser = NULL;
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "s:set_serial",
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, BYTESTRING_FMT ":set_serial",
                                      kwlist, &hex_str)) {
         return NULL;
     }
@@ -362,11 +364,6 @@
 #undef ADD_METHOD
 
 
-static PyObject *
-crypto_Revoked_getattr(crypto_RevokedObj *self, char *name) {
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_Revoked_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 static void
 crypto_Revoked_dealloc(crypto_RevokedObj *self) {
     X509_REVOKED_free(self->revoked);
@@ -392,14 +389,13 @@
 }
 
 PyTypeObject crypto_Revoked_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "Revoked",
     sizeof(crypto_RevokedObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_Revoked_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_Revoked_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509.c
index 4c97525..9c2448c 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509.c
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":get_version"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)X509_get_version(self->x509));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)X509_get_version(self->x509));
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509_set_version_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -93,44 +93,44 @@
     long small_serial;
     PyObject *serial = NULL;
     PyObject *hex = NULL;
-    PyObject *format = NULL;
-    PyObject *format_args = NULL;
     ASN1_INTEGER *asn1_i = NULL;
     BIGNUM *bignum = NULL;
+    char *hexstr;
 
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_serial_number", &serial)) {
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    if (!PyInt_Check(serial) && !PyLong_Check(serial)) {
+    if (!PyOpenSSL_Integer_Check(serial)) {
         PyErr_SetString(
             PyExc_TypeError, "serial number must be integer");
         goto err;
     }
 
-    if ((format_args = Py_BuildValue("(O)", serial)) == NULL) {
+    if ((hex = PyOpenSSL_LongToHex(serial)) == NULL) {
         goto err;
     }
 
-    if ((format = PyString_FromString("%x")) == NULL) {
-        goto err;
+#ifdef PY3
+    {
+        PyObject *hexbytes = PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(hex);
+        Py_DECREF(hex);
+        hex = hexbytes;
     }
-
-    if ((hex = PyString_Format(format, format_args)) == NULL) {
-        goto err;
-    }
+#endif
 
     /**
      * BN_hex2bn stores the result in &bignum.  Unless it doesn't feel like
      * it.  If bignum is still NULL after this call, then the return value
      * is actually the result.  I hope.  -exarkun
      */
-    small_serial = BN_hex2bn(&bignum, PyString_AsString(hex));
+    hexstr = PyBytes_AsString(hex);
+    if (hexstr[1] == 'x') {
+        /* +2 to skip the "0x" */
+        hexstr += 2;
+    }
+    small_serial = BN_hex2bn(&bignum, hexstr);
 
-    Py_DECREF(format_args);
-    format_args = NULL;
-    Py_DECREF(format);
-    format = NULL;
     Py_DECREF(hex);
     hex = NULL;
 
@@ -159,12 +159,6 @@
     return Py_None;
 
   err:
-    if (format_args) {
-        Py_DECREF(format_args);
-    }
-    if (format) {
-        Py_DECREF(format);
-    }
     if (hex) {
         Py_DECREF(hex);
     }
@@ -375,7 +369,8 @@
 crypto_X509_set_notBefore(crypto_X509Obj *self, PyObject *args)
 {
 	return _set_asn1_time(
-		"s:set_notBefore", X509_get_notBefore(self->x509), args);
+            BYTESTRING_FMT ":set_notBefore",
+            X509_get_notBefore(self->x509), args);
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509_set_notAfter_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -394,7 +389,8 @@
 crypto_X509_set_notAfter(crypto_X509Obj *self, PyObject *args)
 {
 	return _set_asn1_time(
-		"s:set_notAfter", X509_get_notAfter(self->x509), args);
+            BYTESTRING_FMT ":set_notAfter",
+            X509_get_notAfter(self->x509), args);
 }
 
 PyObject*
@@ -418,14 +414,14 @@
 	    Py_INCREF(Py_None);
 	    return Py_None;
 	} else if (timestamp->type == V_ASN1_GENERALIZEDTIME) {
-		return PyString_FromString((char *)timestamp->data);
+		return PyBytes_FromString((char *)timestamp->data);
 	} else {
 		ASN1_TIME_to_generalizedtime(timestamp, &gt_timestamp);
 		if (gt_timestamp == NULL) {
 			exception_from_error_queue(crypto_Error);
 			return NULL;
 		} else {
-			py_timestamp = PyString_FromString((char *)gt_timestamp->data);
+			py_timestamp = PyBytes_FromString((char *)gt_timestamp->data);
 			ASN1_GENERALIZEDTIME_free(gt_timestamp);
 			return py_timestamp;
 		}
@@ -582,9 +578,9 @@
 
     tnow = time(NULL);
     if (ASN1_UTCTIME_cmp_time_t(X509_get_notAfter(self->x509), tnow) < 0)
-        return PyInt_FromLong(1L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(1L);
     else
-        return PyInt_FromLong(0L);
+        return PyLong_FromLong(0L);
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509_subject_name_hash_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -637,7 +633,7 @@
         sprintf(tmp+i*3,"%02X:",fp[i]);
     }
     tmp[3*len-1] = 0;
-    ret = PyString_FromStringAndSize(tmp,3*len-1);
+    ret = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(tmp,3*len-1);
     free(tmp);
     return ret;
 }
@@ -783,29 +779,14 @@
     PyObject_Del(self);
 }
 
-/*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The X509 object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_X509_getattr(crypto_X509Obj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_X509_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_X509_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "X509",
     sizeof(crypto_X509Obj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_X509_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_X509_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.c
index 90ef543..d629732 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.c
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":get_critical"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(X509_EXTENSION_get_critical(self->x509_extension));
+    return PyLong_FromLong(X509_EXTENSION_get_critical(self->x509_extension));
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509Extension_get_short_name_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@
 	obj = X509_EXTENSION_get_object(self->x509_extension);
 
 	extname = OBJ_nid2sn(OBJ_obj2nid(obj));
-	return PyString_FromString(extname);
+	return PyBytes_FromString(extname);
 }
 
 
@@ -186,10 +186,12 @@
     static char *kwlist[] = {"type_name", "critical", "value", "subject",
                              "issuer", NULL};
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwargs, "sis|O!O!:X509Extension",
-                                     kwlist, &type_name, &critical, &value,
-                                     &crypto_X509_Type, &subject,
-                                     &crypto_X509_Type, &issuer )) {
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(
+            args, kwargs,
+            BYTESTRING_FMT "i" BYTESTRING_FMT "|O!O!:X509Extension",
+            kwlist, &type_name, &critical, &value,
+            &crypto_X509_Type, &subject,
+            &crypto_X509_Type, &issuer )) {
         return NULL;
     }
 
@@ -214,20 +216,6 @@
 }
 
 /*
- * Find attribute
- *
- * Arguments: self - The X509Extension object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns: A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something
- *          went wrong.
- */       
-static PyObject *
-crypto_X509Extension_getattr(crypto_X509ExtensionObj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_X509Extension_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
-/*
  * Print a nice text representation of the certificate request.
  */
 static PyObject *
@@ -246,7 +234,7 @@
     }
 
     str_len = BIO_get_mem_data(bio, &tmp_str);
-    str = PyString_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
+    str = PyText_FromStringAndSize(tmp_str, str_len);
 
     BIO_free(bio);
 
@@ -254,14 +242,13 @@
 }
 
 PyTypeObject crypto_X509Extension_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "X509Extension",
     sizeof(crypto_X509ExtensionObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_X509Extension_dealloc, 
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_X509Extension_getattr, 
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr  (setattrfunc)crypto_X509Name_setattr, */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */ 
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.h b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.h
index f20e562..6ce7f68 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.h
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509ext.h
@@ -19,8 +19,9 @@
 
 extern  PyTypeObject      crypto_X509Extension_Type;
 
-#define crypto_X509Extension_Check(v) ((v)->ob_type == \
-				       &crypto_X509Extension_Type)
+#define crypto_X509Extension_Check(v) ( \
+        PyObject_TypeCheck((v),         \
+                           &crypto_X509Extension_Type))
 
 typedef struct {
     PyObject_HEAD
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509name.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509name.c
index 39fdcf8..e10c5a5 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509name.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509name.c
@@ -148,10 +148,16 @@
  *            wrong
  */
 static PyObject *
-crypto_X509Name_getattr(crypto_X509NameObj *self, char *name)
+crypto_X509Name_getattro(crypto_X509NameObj *self, PyObject *nameobj)
 {
     int nid, len;
     char *utf8string;
+    char *name;
+#ifdef PY3
+    name = PyBytes_AsString(PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(nameobj));
+#else
+    name = PyBytes_AsString(nameobj);
+#endif
 
     if ((nid = OBJ_txt2nid(name)) == NID_undef) {
         /*
@@ -162,7 +168,7 @@
          * See lp#314814.
          */
         flush_error_queue();
-        return Py_FindMethod(crypto_X509Name_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
+        return PyObject_GenericGetAttr((PyObject*)self, nameobj);
     }
 
     len = get_name_by_nid(self->x509_name, nid, &utf8string);
@@ -216,16 +222,56 @@
  *            m - The second X509Name
  * Returns:   <0 if n < m, 0 if n == m and >0 if n > m
  */
-static int
-crypto_X509Name_compare(crypto_X509NameObj *n, crypto_X509NameObj *m)
-{
-    int result = X509_NAME_cmp(n->x509_name, m->x509_name);
-    if (result < 0) {
-        return -1;
-    } else if (result > 0) {
-        return 1;
+static PyObject *
+crypto_X509Name_richcompare(PyObject *n, PyObject *m, int op) {
+    int result;
+
+    if (!crypto_X509Name_Check(n) || !crypto_X509Name_Check(m)) {
+        Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);
+        return Py_NotImplemented;
+    }
+
+    result = X509_NAME_cmp(
+        ((crypto_X509NameObj*)n)->x509_name,
+        ((crypto_X509NameObj*)m)->x509_name);
+
+    switch (op) {
+    case Py_EQ:
+        result = (result == 0);
+        break;
+
+    case Py_NE:
+        result = (result != 0);
+        break;
+
+    case Py_LT:
+        result = (result < 0);
+        break;
+
+    case Py_LE:
+        result = (result <= 0);
+        break;
+
+    case Py_GT:
+        result = (result > 0);
+        break;
+
+    case Py_GE:
+        result = (result >= 0);
+        break;
+
+    default:
+        /* Should be impossible */
+        Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);
+        return Py_NotImplemented;
+    }
+
+    if (result) {
+        Py_INCREF(Py_True);
+        return Py_True;
     } else {
-        return 0;
+        Py_INCREF(Py_False);
+        return Py_False;
     }
 }
 
@@ -250,7 +296,7 @@
     {
         /* This is safe because tmpbuf is max 512 characters */
         sprintf(realbuf, "<X509Name object '%s'>", tmpbuf);
-        return PyString_FromString(realbuf);
+        return PyText_FromString(realbuf);
     }
 }
 
@@ -275,7 +321,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
     hash = X509_NAME_hash(self->x509_name);
-    return PyInt_FromLong(hash);
+    return PyLong_FromLong(hash);
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509Name_der_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -296,8 +342,8 @@
     }
 
     i2d_X509_NAME(self->x509_name, 0);
-    return PyString_FromStringAndSize(self->x509_name->bytes->data,
-				      self->x509_name->bytes->length);
+    return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(self->x509_name->bytes->data,
+                                     self->x509_name->bytes->length);
 }
 
 
@@ -342,8 +388,8 @@
 	/* printf("fname is %s len=%d str=%s\n", OBJ_nid2sn(nid), l, str); */
 
 	tuple = PyTuple_New(2);
-	PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 0, PyString_FromString(OBJ_nid2sn(nid)));
-	PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 1, PyString_FromStringAndSize((char *)str, l));
+	PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 0, PyBytes_FromString(OBJ_nid2sn(nid)));
+	PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 1, PyBytes_FromStringAndSize((char *)str, l));
 
 	PyList_SetItem(list, i, tuple);
     }
@@ -421,16 +467,15 @@
 #undef ADD_METHOD
 
 PyTypeObject crypto_X509Name_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "X509Name",
     sizeof(crypto_X509NameObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_X509Name_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_X509Name_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     (setattrfunc)crypto_X509Name_setattr,
-    (cmpfunc)crypto_X509Name_compare,
+    NULL, /* reserved */
     (reprfunc)crypto_X509Name_repr,
     NULL, /* as_number */
     NULL, /* as_sequence */
@@ -438,14 +483,14 @@
     NULL, /* hash */
     NULL, /* call */
     NULL, /* str */
-    NULL, /* getattro */
+    (getattrofunc)crypto_X509Name_getattro, /* getattro */
     NULL, /* setattro */
     NULL, /* as_buffer */
     Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, /* tp_flags */
     crypto_X509Name_doc, /* tp_doc */
     (traverseproc)crypto_X509Name_traverse, /* tp_traverse */
     (inquiry)crypto_X509Name_clear, /* tp_clear */
-    NULL, /* tp_richcompare */
+    crypto_X509Name_richcompare, /* tp_richcompare */
     0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */
     NULL, /* tp_iter */
     NULL, /* tp_iternext */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509req.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509req.c
index 14ae072..23c0218 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509req.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509req.c
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(answer);
+    return PyLong_FromLong(answer);
 }
 
 static char crypto_X509Req_add_extensions_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -357,29 +357,14 @@
 }
 
 
-/*
- * Find attribute.
- *
- * Arguments: self - The X509Req object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_X509Req_getattr(crypto_X509ReqObj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_X509Req_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_X509Req_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "X509Req",
     sizeof(crypto_X509ReqObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_X509Req_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_X509Req_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
diff --git a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509store.c b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509store.c
index 16af3b0..30ae508 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/crypto/x509store.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/crypto/x509store.c
@@ -92,36 +92,35 @@
 }
 
 
-/*
- * Find attribute.
- *
- * Arguments: self - The X509Store object
- *            name - The attribute name
- * Returns:   A Python object for the attribute, or NULL if something went
- *            wrong
- */
-static PyObject *
-crypto_X509Store_getattr(crypto_X509StoreObj *self, char *name)
-{
-    return Py_FindMethod(crypto_X509Store_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
-}
-
 PyTypeObject crypto_X509Store_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "X509Store",
     sizeof(crypto_X509StoreObj),
     0,
     (destructor)crypto_X509Store_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)crypto_X509Store_getattr,
+    NULL, /* getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
     NULL, /* as_number */
     NULL, /* as_sequence */
     NULL, /* as_mapping */
-    NULL  /* hash */
+    NULL,  /* hash */
+    NULL, /* call */
+    NULL, /* str */
+    NULL, /* getattro */
+    NULL, /* setattro */
+    NULL, /* as_buffer */
+    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
+    NULL, /* doc */
+    NULL, /* traverse */
+    NULL, /* clear */
+    NULL, /* tp_richcompare */
+    0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */
+    NULL, /* tp_iter */
+    NULL, /* tp_iternext */
+    crypto_X509Store_methods, /* tp_methods */
 };
 
 
diff --git a/OpenSSL/py3k.h b/OpenSSL/py3k.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d64817d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/OpenSSL/py3k.h
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+#ifndef PyOpenSSL_PY3K_H_
+#define PyOpenSSL_PY3K_H_
+
+#if (PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03000000)
+
+#define PY3
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_MODINIT(name) \
+PyMODINIT_FUNC \
+PyInit_##name(void)
+
+#define PyText_CheckExact PyUnicode_CheckExact
+#define PyText_FromString PyUnicode_FromString
+#define PyText_FromStringAndSize PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(type, size) PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(type, size)
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_Integer_Check(o) PyLong_Check(o)
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(module) { return module; }
+
+#define BYTESTRING_FMT "y"
+
+#else /* (PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03000000) */
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(module) { return; }
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(type, size) PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL) 0,
+
+#define PyBytes_FromStringAndSize PyString_FromStringAndSize
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_Integer_Check(o) (PyInt_Check(o) || PyLong_Check(o))
+
+#define PyBytes_Size PyString_Size
+#define PyBytes_Check PyString_Check
+#define PyBytes_CheckExact PyString_CheckExact
+#define PyBytes_AsString PyString_AsString
+#define PyBytes_FromString PyString_FromString
+#define PyBytes_FromStringAndSize PyString_FromStringAndSize
+#define _PyBytes_Resize _PyString_Resize
+
+#define PyText_CheckExact PyString_CheckExact
+#define PyText_FromString PyString_FromString
+#define PyText_FromStringAndSize PyString_FromStringAndSize
+
+#define PyOpenSSL_MODINIT(name) \
+void \
+init##name(void)
+
+#define BYTESTRING_FMT "s"
+
+#endif /* (PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03000000) */
+
+#endif /* PyOpenSSL_PY3K_H_ */
+
diff --git a/OpenSSL/rand/rand.c b/OpenSSL/rand/rand.c
index 1bf71b1..fabf805 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/rand/rand.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/rand/rand.c
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@
     int size;
     double entropy;
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s#d:add", &buf, &size, &entropy))
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, BYTESTRING_FMT "#d:add", &buf, &size, &entropy))
         return NULL;
 
     RAND_add(buf, size, entropy);
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@
     char *buf;
     int size;
 
-    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s#:seed", &buf, &size))
+    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, BYTESTRING_FMT "#:seed", &buf, &size))
         return NULL;
 
     RAND_seed(buf, size);
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":status"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)RAND_status());
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)RAND_status());
 }
 
 #ifdef MS_WINDOWS
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|i:egd", &path, &bytes))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)RAND_egd_bytes(path, bytes));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)RAND_egd_bytes(path, bytes));
 }
 
 static char rand_cleanup_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|i:load_file", &filename, &maxbytes))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)RAND_load_file(filename, maxbytes));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)RAND_load_file(filename, maxbytes));
 }
 
 static char rand_write_file_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s:write_file", &filename))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)RAND_write_file(filename));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)RAND_write_file(filename));
 }
 
 static char rand_bytes_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@
         exception_from_error_queue(rand_Error);
         goto done;
     }
-    obj = PyString_FromStringAndSize(buf, (unsigned) num_bytes);
+    obj = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(buf, (unsigned) num_bytes);
  done:
     free(buf);
     return obj;
@@ -254,28 +254,50 @@
 };
 
 
+#ifdef PY3
+static struct PyModuleDef randmodule = {
+    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+    "rand",
+    rand_doc,
+    -1,
+    rand_methods
+};
+#endif
+
 /*
  * Initialize the rand sub module
  *
  * Arguments: None
  * Returns:   None
  */
-void
-initrand(void)
-{
+PyOpenSSL_MODINIT(rand) {
     PyObject *module;
 
+#ifdef PY3
+    module = PyModule_Create(&randmodule);
+#else
+    module = Py_InitModule3("rand", rand_methods, rand_doc);
+#endif
+    if (module == NULL) {
+        PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
+    }
+
+    rand_Error = PyErr_NewException("OpenSSL.rand.Error", NULL, NULL);
+
+    if (rand_Error == NULL) {
+        goto error;
+    }
+
+    if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "Error", rand_Error) != 0) {
+        goto error;
+    }
+
     ERR_load_RAND_strings();
 
-    if ((module = Py_InitModule3("rand", rand_methods, rand_doc)) == NULL)
-        return;
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(module);
 
-    rand_Error = PyErr_NewException("OpenSSL.rand.Error", NULL, NULL);
-    if (rand_Error == NULL)
-        goto error;
-    if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "Error", rand_Error) != 0)
-        goto error;
- error:
+error:
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
     ;
 }
 
diff --git a/OpenSSL/ssl/connection.c b/OpenSSL/ssl/connection.c
index d53f45c..0289876 100755
--- a/OpenSSL/ssl/connection.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/ssl/connection.c
@@ -276,7 +276,7 @@
     }
 
     ret = SSL_pending(self->ssl);
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)ret);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)ret);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_bio_write_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -317,7 +317,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)ret);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)ret);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_send_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -352,7 +352,7 @@
     err = SSL_get_error(self->ssl, ret);
     if (err == SSL_ERROR_NONE)
     {
-        return PyInt_FromLong((long)ret);
+        return PyLong_FromLong((long)ret);
     }
     else
     {
@@ -429,12 +429,12 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "i|i:recv", &bufsiz, &flags))
         return NULL;
 
-    buf = PyString_FromStringAndSize(NULL, bufsiz);
+    buf = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, bufsiz);
     if (buf == NULL)
         return NULL;
 
     MY_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS(self->tstate)
-    ret = SSL_read(self->ssl, PyString_AsString(buf), bufsiz);
+    ret = SSL_read(self->ssl, PyBytes_AsString(buf), bufsiz);
     MY_END_ALLOW_THREADS(self->tstate)
 
     if (PyErr_Occurred())
@@ -447,7 +447,7 @@
     err = SSL_get_error(self->ssl, ret);
     if (err == SSL_ERROR_NONE)
     {
-        if (ret != bufsiz && _PyString_Resize(&buf, ret) < 0)
+        if (ret != bufsiz && _PyBytes_Resize(&buf, ret) < 0)
             return NULL;
         return buf;
     }
@@ -481,11 +481,11 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "i:bio_read", &bufsiz))
         return NULL;
 
-    buf = PyString_FromStringAndSize(NULL, bufsiz);
+    buf = PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, bufsiz);
     if (buf == NULL)
         return NULL;
 
-    ret = BIO_read(self->from_ssl, PyString_AsString(buf), bufsiz);
+    ret = BIO_read(self->from_ssl, PyBytes_AsString(buf), bufsiz);
 
     if (PyErr_Occurred())
     {
@@ -506,7 +506,7 @@
     /*
      * Shrink the string to match the number of bytes we actually read.
      */
-    if (ret != bufsiz && _PyString_Resize(&buf, ret) < 0)
+    if (ret != bufsiz && _PyBytes_Resize(&buf, ret) < 0)
     {
         Py_DECREF(buf);
         return NULL;
@@ -536,7 +536,7 @@
         return NULL;
     }
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)ret);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)ret);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_do_handshake_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -589,7 +589,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":renegotiate_pending"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)SSL_renegotiate_pending(self->ssl));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)SSL_renegotiate_pending(self->ssl));
 }
 #endif
 
@@ -604,7 +604,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":total_renegotiations"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(SSL_total_renegotiations(self->ssl));
+    return PyLong_FromLong(SSL_total_renegotiations(self->ssl));
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_set_accept_state_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -686,11 +686,6 @@
 
     ret = PyEval_CallObject(meth, args);
     Py_DECREF(meth);
-    if (ret == NULL)
-        return NULL;
-    if (PyInt_Check(ret) && PyInt_AsLong(ret) != 0)
-        return ret;
-
     return ret;
 }
 
@@ -820,7 +815,7 @@
     lst = PyList_New(0);
     while ((ret = SSL_get_cipher_list(self->ssl, idx)) != NULL)
     {
-        item = PyString_FromString(ret);
+        item = PyText_FromString(ret);
         PyList_Append(lst, item);
         Py_DECREF(item);
         idx++;
@@ -942,7 +937,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":get_shutdown"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)SSL_get_shutdown(self->ssl));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)SSL_get_shutdown(self->ssl));
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_set_shutdown_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -975,7 +970,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":state_string"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyString_FromString(SSL_state_string_long(self->ssl));
+    return PyText_FromString(SSL_state_string_long(self->ssl));
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_client_random_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -993,7 +988,7 @@
         Py_INCREF(Py_None);
         return Py_None;
     }
-    return PyString_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->s3->client_random, SSL3_RANDOM_SIZE);
+    return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->s3->client_random, SSL3_RANDOM_SIZE);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_server_random_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -1011,7 +1006,7 @@
         Py_INCREF(Py_None);
         return Py_None;
     }
-    return PyString_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->s3->server_random, SSL3_RANDOM_SIZE);
+    return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->s3->server_random, SSL3_RANDOM_SIZE);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_master_key_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -1029,7 +1024,7 @@
         Py_INCREF(Py_None);
         return Py_None;
     }
-    return PyString_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->session->master_key, self->ssl->session->master_key_length);
+    return PyBytes_FromStringAndSize( (const char *) self->ssl->session->master_key, self->ssl->session->master_key_length);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_sock_shutdown_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -1086,7 +1081,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":want_read"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)SSL_want_read(self->ssl));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)SSL_want_read(self->ssl));
 }
 
 static char ssl_Connection_want_write_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -1101,7 +1096,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":want_write"))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)SSL_want_write(self->ssl));
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)SSL_want_write(self->ssl));
 }
 
 /*
@@ -1281,17 +1276,14 @@
  *            wrong
  */
 static PyObject *
-ssl_Connection_getattr(ssl_ConnectionObj *self, char *name)
-{
+ssl_Connection_getattro(ssl_ConnectionObj *self, PyObject *nameobj) {
     PyObject *meth;
-    
-    meth = Py_FindMethod(ssl_Connection_methods, (PyObject *)self, name);
 
-    if (PyErr_Occurred() && PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_AttributeError))
-    {
+    meth = PyObject_GenericGetAttr((PyObject*)self, nameobj);
+    if (PyErr_Occurred() && PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_AttributeError)) {
         PyErr_Clear();
         /* Try looking it up in the "socket" instead. */
-        meth = PyObject_GetAttrString(self->socket, name);
+        meth = PyObject_GenericGetAttr(self->socket, nameobj);
     }
 
     return meth;
@@ -1357,14 +1349,13 @@
 }
 
 PyTypeObject ssl_Connection_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "OpenSSL.SSL.Connection",
     sizeof(ssl_ConnectionObj),
     0,
     (destructor)ssl_Connection_dealloc,
     NULL, /* print */
-    (getattrfunc)ssl_Connection_getattr, /* tp_getattr */
+    NULL, /* tp_getattr */
     NULL, /* setattr */
     NULL, /* compare */
     NULL, /* repr */
@@ -1374,7 +1365,7 @@
     NULL, /* hash */
     NULL, /* call */
     NULL, /* str */
-    NULL, /* getattro */
+    (getattrofunc)ssl_Connection_getattro, /* getattro */
     NULL, /* setattro */
     NULL, /* as_buffer */
     Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
diff --git a/OpenSSL/ssl/context.c b/OpenSSL/ssl/context.c
index ef59961..69bc4e5 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/ssl/context.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/ssl/context.c
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@
 	goto out;
     }
 
-    if (!PyString_Check(ret)) {
+    if (!PyBytes_Check(ret)) {
         /*
          * XXX Returned something that wasn't a string.  This is bogus.  We'll
          * return 0 and OpenSSL will treat it as an error, resulting in an
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@
         goto out;
     }
 
-    len = PyString_Size(ret);
+    len = PyBytes_Size(ret);
     if (len > maxlen) {
         /*
          * Returned more than we said they were allowed to return.  Just
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@
         len = maxlen;
     }
 
-    str = PyString_AsString(ret);
+    str = PyBytes_AsString(ret);
     strncpy(buf, str, len);
     Py_XDECREF(ret);
 
@@ -368,8 +368,16 @@
         Py_DECREF(type);
         return NULL;
     }
-    right_name = (PyString_CheckExact(name_attr) &&
-                  strcmp(name, PyString_AsString(name_attr)) == 0);
+
+#ifdef PY3
+    {
+        PyObject* asciiname = PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(name_attr);
+        Py_DECREF(name_attr);
+        name_attr = asciiname;
+    }
+#endif
+    right_name = (PyBytes_CheckExact(name_attr) &&
+                  strcmp(name, PyBytes_AsString(name_attr)) == 0);
     Py_DECREF(name_attr);
     res = (PyTypeObject *)type;
     if (!right_name || res->tp_basicsize != objsize) {
@@ -725,7 +733,7 @@
         return NULL;
 
     mode = SSL_CTX_get_verify_mode(self->ctx);
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)mode);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)mode);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Context_get_verify_depth_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -742,7 +750,7 @@
         return NULL;
 
     depth = SSL_CTX_get_verify_depth(self->ctx);
-    return PyInt_FromLong((long)depth);
+    return PyLong_FromLong((long)depth);
 }
 
 static char ssl_Context_load_tmp_dh_doc[] = "\n\
@@ -1046,7 +1054,7 @@
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "l:set_options", &options))
         return NULL;
 
-    return PyInt_FromLong(SSL_CTX_set_options(self->ctx, options));
+    return PyLong_FromLong(SSL_CTX_set_options(self->ctx, options));
 }
 
 
@@ -1247,8 +1255,7 @@
 
 
 PyTypeObject ssl_Context_Type = {
-    PyObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL)
-    0,
+    PyOpenSSL_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
     "OpenSSL.SSL.Context",
     sizeof(ssl_ContextObj),
     0,
diff --git a/OpenSSL/ssl/ssl.c b/OpenSSL/ssl/ssl.c
index 94d4844..8ac4420 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/ssl/ssl.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/ssl/ssl.c
@@ -30,7 +30,9 @@
 See the file RATIONALE for a short explanation of why this module was written.\n\
 ";
 
+#ifndef PY3
 void **crypto_API;
+#endif
 
 int _pyOpenSSL_tstate_key;
 
@@ -48,34 +50,51 @@
     { NULL, NULL }
 };
 
+#ifdef PY3
+static struct PyModuleDef sslmodule = {
+    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+    "SSL",
+    ssl_doc,
+    -1,
+    ssl_methods
+};
+#endif
+
 /*
  * Initialize SSL sub module
  *
  * Arguments: None
  * Returns:   None
  */
-void
-initSSL(void)
-{
+PyOpenSSL_MODINIT(SSL) {
+    PyObject *module;
+#ifndef PY3
     static void *ssl_API[ssl_API_pointers];
     PyObject *ssl_api_object;
-    PyObject *module;
+
+    import_crypto();
+#endif
 
     SSL_library_init();
     ERR_load_SSL_strings();
 
-    import_crypto();
-
-    if ((module = Py_InitModule3("SSL", ssl_methods, ssl_doc)) == NULL) {
-        return;
+#ifdef PY3
+    module = PyModule_Create(&sslmodule);
+#else
+    module = Py_InitModule3("SSL", ssl_methods, ssl_doc);
+#endif
+    if (module == NULL) {
+        PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
     }
 
+#ifndef PY3
     /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
     ssl_API[ssl_Context_New_NUM]    = (void *)ssl_Context_New;
     ssl_API[ssl_Connection_New_NUM] = (void *)ssl_Connection_New;
     ssl_api_object = PyCObject_FromVoidPtr((void *)ssl_API, NULL);
     if (ssl_api_object != NULL)
         PyModule_AddObject(module, "_C_API", ssl_api_object);
+#endif
 
     /* Exceptions */
 /*
@@ -177,6 +196,9 @@
     _pyOpenSSL_tstate_key = PyThread_create_key();
 #endif
 
-  error:
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(module);
+
+error:
+    PyOpenSSL_MODRETURN(NULL);
     ;
 }
diff --git a/OpenSSL/test/test_crypto.py b/OpenSSL/test/test_crypto.py
index 645f6cf..6b48282 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/test/test_crypto.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/test/test_crypto.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 from unittest import main
 
 import os, re
-from os import popen2
+from subprocess import PIPE, Popen
 from datetime import datetime, timedelta
 
 from OpenSSL.crypto import TYPE_RSA, TYPE_DSA, Error, PKey, PKeyType
@@ -23,10 +23,10 @@
 from OpenSSL.crypto import CRL, Revoked, load_crl
 from OpenSSL.crypto import NetscapeSPKI, NetscapeSPKIType
 from OpenSSL.crypto import sign, verify
-from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase
+from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase, bytes, b
 
 
-root_cert_pem = """-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+root_cert_pem = b("""-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
 MIIC7TCCAlagAwIBAgIIPQzE4MbeufQwDQYJKoZIhvcNAQEFBQAwWDELMAkGA1UE
 BhMCVVMxCzAJBgNVBAgTAklMMRAwDgYDVQQHEwdDaGljYWdvMRAwDgYDVQQKEwdU
 ZXN0aW5nMRgwFgYDVQQDEw9UZXN0aW5nIFJvb3QgQ0EwIhgPMjAwOTAzMjUxMjM2
@@ -44,9 +44,9 @@
 hkgaZnzoIq/Uamidegk4hirsCT/R+6vsKAAxNTcBjUeZjlykCJWy5ojShGftXIKY
 w/njVbKMXrvc83qmTdGl3TAM0fxQIpqgcglFLveEBgzn
 -----END CERTIFICATE-----
-"""
+""")
 
-root_key_pem = """-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+root_key_pem = b("""-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
 MIICXQIBAAKBgQD5mkLpi7q6ROdu7khB3S9aanA0Zls7vvfGOmB80/yeylhGpsjA
 jWen0VtSQke/NlEPGtO38tsV7CsuFnSmschvAnGrcJl76b0UOOHUgDTIoRxC6QDU
 3claegwsrBA+sJEBbqx5RdXbIRGicPG/8qQ4Zm1SKOgotcbwiaor2yxZ2wIDAQAB
@@ -61,9 +61,9 @@
 6AWSeGAdtRFHVzR7oHjVAkB4hutvxiOeiIVQNBhM6RSI9aBPMI21DoX2JRoxvNW2
 cbvAhow217X9V0dVerEOKxnNYspXRrh36h7k4mQA+sDq
 -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-"""
+""")
 
-server_cert_pem = """-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+server_cert_pem = b("""-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
 MIICKDCCAZGgAwIBAgIJAJn/HpR21r/8MA0GCSqGSIb3DQEBBQUAMFgxCzAJBgNV
 BAYTAlVTMQswCQYDVQQIEwJJTDEQMA4GA1UEBxMHQ2hpY2FnbzEQMA4GA1UEChMH
 VGVzdGluZzEYMBYGA1UEAxMPVGVzdGluZyBSb290IENBMCIYDzIwMDkwMzI1MTIz
@@ -77,9 +77,9 @@
 2mgpFQ6FHpoIENGvJhdEKpptQ5i7KaGhnDNTfdy3x1+h852G99f1iyj0RmbuFcM8
 uzujnS8YXWvM7DM1Ilozk4MzPug8jzFp5uhKCQ==
 -----END CERTIFICATE-----
-"""
+""")
 
-server_key_pem = """-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+server_key_pem = b("""-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
 MIICWwIBAAKBgQC+pvhuud1dLaQQvzipdtlcTotgr5SuE2LvSx0gz/bg1U3u1eQ+
 U5eqsxaEUceaX5p5Kk+QflvW8qdjVNxQuYS5uc0gK2+OZnlIYxCf4n5GYGzVIx3Q
 SBj/TAEFB2WuVinZBiCbxgL7PFM1Kpa+EwVkCAduPpSflJJPwkYGrK2MHQIDAQAB
@@ -94,9 +94,9 @@
 NaeNCFfH3aeTrX0LyQJAMBWjWmeKM2G2sCExheeQK0ROnaBC8itCECD4Jsve4nqf
 r50+LF74iLXFwqysVCebPKMOpDWp/qQ1BbJQIPs7/A==
 -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-"""
+""")
 
-client_cert_pem = """-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+client_cert_pem = b("""-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
 MIICJjCCAY+gAwIBAgIJAKxpFI5lODkjMA0GCSqGSIb3DQEBBQUAMFgxCzAJBgNV
 BAYTAlVTMQswCQYDVQQIEwJJTDEQMA4GA1UEBxMHQ2hpY2FnbzEQMA4GA1UEChMH
 VGVzdGluZzEYMBYGA1UEAxMPVGVzdGluZyBSb290IENBMCIYDzIwMDkwMzI1MTIz
@@ -110,9 +110,9 @@
 9Zdr0U4UDCU9SmmGYh4o7R4TZ5pGFvBYvjhHbkSFYFQXZxKUi+WUxplP6I0wr2KJ
 PSTJCjJOn3xo2NTKRgV1gaoTf2EhL+RG8TQ=
 -----END CERTIFICATE-----
-"""
+""")
 
-client_key_pem = """-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+client_key_pem = b("""-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
 MIICXgIBAAKBgQDAZh/SRtNm5ntMT4qb6YzEpTroMlq2rn+GrRHRiZ+xkCw/CGNh
 btPir7/QxaUj26BSmQrHw1bGKEbPsWiW7bdXSespl+xKiku4G/KvnnmWdeJHqsiX
 eUZtqurMELcPQAw9xPHEuhqqUJvvEoMTsnCEqGM+7DtboCRajYyHfluARQIDAQAB
@@ -127,9 +127,9 @@
 JJEQjOMCVsEJlRk54WWjAkEAzoZNH6UhDdBK5F38rVt/y4SEHgbSfJHIAmPS32Kq
 f6GGcfNpip0Uk7q7udTKuX7Q/buZi/C4YW7u3VKAquv9NA==
 -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-"""
+""")
 
-cleartextCertificatePEM = """-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+cleartextCertificatePEM = b("""-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
 MIIC7TCCAlagAwIBAgIIPQzE4MbeufQwDQYJKoZIhvcNAQEFBQAwWDELMAkGA1UE
 BhMCVVMxCzAJBgNVBAgTAklMMRAwDgYDVQQHEwdDaGljYWdvMRAwDgYDVQQKEwdU
 ZXN0aW5nMRgwFgYDVQQDEw9UZXN0aW5nIFJvb3QgQ0EwIhgPMjAwOTAzMjUxMjM2
@@ -147,9 +147,9 @@
 hkgaZnzoIq/Uamidegk4hirsCT/R+6vsKAAxNTcBjUeZjlykCJWy5ojShGftXIKY
 w/njVbKMXrvc83qmTdGl3TAM0fxQIpqgcglFLveEBgzn
 -----END CERTIFICATE-----
-"""
+""")
 
-cleartextPrivateKeyPEM = """-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+cleartextPrivateKeyPEM = b("""-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
 MIICXQIBAAKBgQD5mkLpi7q6ROdu7khB3S9aanA0Zls7vvfGOmB80/yeylhGpsjA
 jWen0VtSQke/NlEPGtO38tsV7CsuFnSmschvAnGrcJl76b0UOOHUgDTIoRxC6QDU
 3claegwsrBA+sJEBbqx5RdXbIRGicPG/8qQ4Zm1SKOgotcbwiaor2yxZ2wIDAQAB
@@ -164,22 +164,22 @@
 6AWSeGAdtRFHVzR7oHjVAkB4hutvxiOeiIVQNBhM6RSI9aBPMI21DoX2JRoxvNW2
 cbvAhow217X9V0dVerEOKxnNYspXRrh36h7k4mQA+sDq
 -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-"""
+""")
 
-cleartextCertificateRequestPEM = (
-    "-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE REQUEST-----\n"
-    "MIIBnjCCAQcCAQAwXjELMAkGA1UEBhMCVVMxCzAJBgNVBAgTAklMMRAwDgYDVQQH\n"
-    "EwdDaGljYWdvMRcwFQYDVQQKEw5NeSBDb21wYW55IEx0ZDEXMBUGA1UEAxMORnJl\n"
-    "ZGVyaWNrIERlYW4wgZ8wDQYJKoZIhvcNAQEBBQADgY0AMIGJAoGBANp6Y17WzKSw\n"
-    "BsUWkXdqg6tnXy8H8hA1msCMWpc+/2KJ4mbv5NyD6UD+/SqagQqulPbF/DFea9nA\n"
-    "E0zhmHJELcM8gUTIlXv/cgDWnmK4xj8YkjVUiCdqKRAKeuzLG1pGmwwF5lGeJpXN\n"
-    "xQn5ecR0UYSOWj6TTGXB9VyUMQzCClcBAgMBAAGgADANBgkqhkiG9w0BAQUFAAOB\n"
-    "gQAAJGuF/R/GGbeC7FbFW+aJgr9ee0Xbl6nlhu7pTe67k+iiKT2dsl2ti68MVTnu\n"
-    "Vrb3HUNqOkiwsJf6kCtq5oPn3QVYzTa76Dt2y3Rtzv6boRSlmlfrgS92GNma8JfR\n"
-    "oICQk3nAudi6zl1Dix3BCv1pUp5KMtGn3MeDEi6QFGy2rA==\n"
-    "-----END CERTIFICATE REQUEST-----\n")
+cleartextCertificateRequestPEM = b("""-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE REQUEST-----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+-----END CERTIFICATE REQUEST-----
+""")
 
-encryptedPrivateKeyPEM = """-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+encryptedPrivateKeyPEM = b("""-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
 Proc-Type: 4,ENCRYPTED
 DEK-Info: DES-EDE3-CBC,9573604A18579E9E
 
@@ -197,15 +197,15 @@
 MbzjS007Oe4qqBnCWaFPSnJX6uLApeTbqAxAeyCql56ULW5x6vDMNC3dwjvS/CEh
 11n8RkgFIQA0AhuKSIg3CbuartRsJnWOLwgLTzsrKYL4yRog1RJrtw==
 -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-"""
-encryptedPrivateKeyPEMPassphrase = "foobar"
+""")
+encryptedPrivateKeyPEMPassphrase = b("foobar")
 
 # Some PKCS#7 stuff.  Generated with the openssl command line:
 #
 #    openssl crl2pkcs7 -inform pem -outform pem -certfile s.pem -nocrl
 #
 # with a certificate and key (but the key should be irrelevant) in s.pem
-pkcs7Data = """\
+pkcs7Data = b("""\
 -----BEGIN PKCS7-----
 MIIDNwYJKoZIhvcNAQcCoIIDKDCCAyQCAQExADALBgkqhkiG9w0BBwGgggMKMIID
 BjCCAm+gAwIBAgIBATANBgkqhkiG9w0BAQQFADB7MQswCQYDVQQGEwJTRzERMA8G
@@ -226,9 +226,9 @@
 /g5NDjxFZNDJP1dGiLAxPW6JXwov4v0FmdzfLOZ01jDcgQQZqEpYlgpuI5JEWUQ9
 Ho4EzbYCOaEAMQA=
 -----END PKCS7-----
-"""
+""")
 
-crlData ="""\
+crlData = b("""\
 -----BEGIN X509 CRL-----
 MIIBWzCBxTANBgkqhkiG9w0BAQQFADBYMQswCQYDVQQGEwJVUzELMAkGA1UECBMC
 SUwxEDAOBgNVBAcTB0NoaWNhZ28xEDAOBgNVBAoTB1Rlc3RpbmcxGDAWBgNVBAMT
@@ -239,7 +239,7 @@
 0yp4HXRFFoRhhSE/hP+eteaPXRgrsNRLHe9ZDd69wmh7J1wMDb0m81RG7kqcbsid
 vrzEeLDRiiPl92dyyWmu
 -----END X509 CRL-----
-"""
+""")
 
 class X509ExtTests(TestCase):
     """
@@ -263,8 +263,8 @@
         self.subject.commonName = self.req.get_subject().commonName
         self.x509.set_issuer(self.subject)
         self.x509.set_pubkey(self.pkey)
-        now = datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")
-        expire  = (datetime.now() + timedelta(days=100)).strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")
+        now = b(datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
+        expire  = b((datetime.now() + timedelta(days=100)).strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
         self.x509.set_notBefore(now)
         self.x509.set_notAfter(expire)
 
@@ -277,7 +277,7 @@
         # This isn't necessarily the best string representation.  Perhaps it
         # will be changed/improved in the future.
         self.assertEquals(
-            str(X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:false')),
+            str(X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:false'))),
             'CA:FALSE')
 
 
@@ -288,7 +288,8 @@
         """
         self.assertIdentical(X509Extension, X509ExtensionType)
         self.assertConsistentType(
-            X509Extension, 'X509Extension', 'basicConstraints', True, 'CA:true')
+            X509Extension,
+            'X509Extension', b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:true'))
 
 
     def test_construction(self):
@@ -296,13 +297,14 @@
         L{X509Extension} accepts an extension type name, a critical flag,
         and an extension value and returns an L{X509ExtensionType} instance.
         """
-        basic = X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:true')
+        basic = X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:true'))
         self.assertTrue(
             isinstance(basic, X509ExtensionType),
             "%r is of type %r, should be %r" % (
                 basic, type(basic), X509ExtensionType))
 
-        comment = X509Extension('nsComment', False, 'pyOpenSSL unit test')
+        comment = X509Extension(
+            b('nsComment'), False, b('pyOpenSSL unit test'))
         self.assertTrue(
             isinstance(comment, X509ExtensionType),
             "%r is of type %r, should be %r" % (
@@ -315,17 +317,17 @@
         name or value.
         """
         self.assertRaises(
-            Error, X509Extension, 'thisIsMadeUp', False, 'hi')
+            Error, X509Extension, b('thisIsMadeUp'), False, b('hi'))
         self.assertRaises(
-            Error, X509Extension, 'basicConstraints', False, 'blah blah')
+            Error, X509Extension, b('basicConstraints'), False, b('blah blah'))
 
         # Exercise a weird one (an extension which uses the r2i method).  This
         # exercises the codepath that requires a non-NULL ctx to be passed to
         # X509V3_EXT_nconf.  It can't work now because we provide no
         # configuration database.  It might be made to work in the future.
         self.assertRaises(
-            Error, X509Extension, 'proxyCertInfo', True,
-            'language:id-ppl-anyLanguage,pathlen:1,policy:text:AB')
+            Error, X509Extension, b('proxyCertInfo'), True,
+            b('language:id-ppl-anyLanguage,pathlen:1,policy:text:AB'))
 
 
     def test_get_critical(self):
@@ -333,9 +335,9 @@
         L{X509ExtensionType.get_critical} returns the value of the
         extension's critical flag.
         """
-        ext = X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:true')
+        ext = X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:true'))
         self.assertTrue(ext.get_critical())
-        ext = X509Extension('basicConstraints', False, 'CA:true')
+        ext = X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), False, b('CA:true'))
         self.assertFalse(ext.get_critical())
 
 
@@ -344,10 +346,10 @@
         L{X509ExtensionType.get_short_name} returns a string giving the short
         type name of the extension.
         """
-        ext = X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:true')
-        self.assertEqual(ext.get_short_name(), 'basicConstraints')
-        ext = X509Extension('nsComment', True, 'foo bar')
-        self.assertEqual(ext.get_short_name(), 'nsComment')
+        ext = X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:true'))
+        self.assertEqual(ext.get_short_name(), b('basicConstraints'))
+        ext = X509Extension(b('nsComment'), True, b('foo bar'))
+        self.assertEqual(ext.get_short_name(), b('nsComment'))
 
 
     def test_unused_subject(self):
@@ -355,13 +357,14 @@
         The C{subject} parameter to L{X509Extension} may be provided for an
         extension which does not use it and is ignored in this case.
         """
-        ext1 = X509Extension('basicConstraints', False, 'CA:TRUE', subject=self.x509)
+        ext1 = X509Extension(
+            b('basicConstraints'), False, b('CA:TRUE'), subject=self.x509)
         self.x509.add_extensions([ext1])
         self.x509.sign(self.pkey, 'sha1')
         # This is a little lame.  Can we think of a better way?
         text = dump_certificate(FILETYPE_TEXT, self.x509)
-        self.assertTrue('X509v3 Basic Constraints:' in text)
-        self.assertTrue('CA:TRUE' in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('X509v3 Basic Constraints:') in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('CA:TRUE') in text)
 
 
     def test_subject(self):
@@ -369,11 +372,12 @@
         If an extension requires a subject, the C{subject} parameter to
         L{X509Extension} provides its value.
         """
-        ext3 = X509Extension('subjectKeyIdentifier', False, 'hash', subject=self.x509)
+        ext3 = X509Extension(
+            b('subjectKeyIdentifier'), False, b('hash'), subject=self.x509)
         self.x509.add_extensions([ext3])
         self.x509.sign(self.pkey, 'sha1')
         text = dump_certificate(FILETYPE_TEXT, self.x509)
-        self.assertTrue('X509v3 Subject Key Identifier:' in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('X509v3 Subject Key Identifier:') in text)
 
 
     def test_missing_subject(self):
@@ -382,7 +386,7 @@
         given no value, something happens.
         """
         self.assertRaises(
-            Error, X509Extension, 'subjectKeyIdentifier', False, 'hash')
+            Error, X509Extension, b('subjectKeyIdentifier'), False, b('hash'))
 
 
     def test_invalid_subject(self):
@@ -402,12 +406,13 @@
         The C{issuer} parameter to L{X509Extension} may be provided for an
         extension which does not use it and is ignored in this case.
         """
-        ext1 = X509Extension('basicConstraints', False, 'CA:TRUE', issuer=self.x509)
+        ext1 = X509Extension(
+            b('basicConstraints'), False, b('CA:TRUE'), issuer=self.x509)
         self.x509.add_extensions([ext1])
         self.x509.sign(self.pkey, 'sha1')
         text = dump_certificate(FILETYPE_TEXT, self.x509)
-        self.assertTrue('X509v3 Basic Constraints:' in text)
-        self.assertTrue('CA:TRUE' in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('X509v3 Basic Constraints:') in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('CA:TRUE') in text)
 
 
     def test_issuer(self):
@@ -416,13 +421,13 @@
         L{X509Extension} provides its value.
         """
         ext2 = X509Extension(
-            'authorityKeyIdentifier', False, 'issuer:always',
+            b('authorityKeyIdentifier'), False, b('issuer:always'),
             issuer=self.x509)
         self.x509.add_extensions([ext2])
         self.x509.sign(self.pkey, 'sha1')
         text = dump_certificate(FILETYPE_TEXT, self.x509)
-        self.assertTrue('X509v3 Authority Key Identifier:' in text)
-        self.assertTrue('DirName:/CN=Yoda root CA' in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('X509v3 Authority Key Identifier:') in text)
+        self.assertTrue(b('DirName:/CN=Yoda root CA') in text)
 
 
     def test_missing_issuer(self):
@@ -433,7 +438,8 @@
         self.assertRaises(
             Error,
             X509Extension,
-            'authorityKeyIdentifier', False, 'keyid:always,issuer:always')
+            b('authorityKeyIdentifier'), False,
+            b('keyid:always,issuer:always'))
 
 
     def test_invalid_issuer(self):
@@ -566,9 +572,11 @@
     def _x509name(self, **attrs):
         # XXX There's no other way to get a new X509Name yet.
         name = X509().get_subject()
-        attrs = attrs.items()
+        attrs = list(attrs.items())
         # Make the order stable - order matters!
-        attrs.sort(lambda (k1, v1), (k2, v2): cmp(v1, v2))
+        def key(attr):
+            return attr[1]
+        attrs.sort(key=key)
         for k, v in attrs:
             setattr(name, k, v)
         return name
@@ -736,8 +744,8 @@
         a = self._x509name(CN="foo", C="US")
         self.assertEqual(
             a.der(),
-            '0\x1b1\x0b0\t\x06\x03U\x04\x06\x13\x02US'
-            '1\x0c0\n\x06\x03U\x04\x03\x13\x03foo')
+            b('0\x1b1\x0b0\t\x06\x03U\x04\x06\x13\x02US'
+              '1\x0c0\n\x06\x03U\x04\x03\x13\x03foo'))
 
 
     def test_get_components(self):
@@ -748,11 +756,11 @@
         a = self._x509name()
         self.assertEqual(a.get_components(), [])
         a.CN = "foo"
-        self.assertEqual(a.get_components(), [("CN", "foo")])
+        self.assertEqual(a.get_components(), [(b("CN"), b("foo"))])
         a.organizationalUnitName = "bar"
         self.assertEqual(
             a.get_components(),
-            [("CN", "foo"), ("OU", "bar")])
+            [(b("CN"), b("foo")), (b("OU"), b("bar"))])
 
 
 class _PKeyInteractionTestsMixin:
@@ -913,7 +921,7 @@
         """
         request = X509Req()
         request.add_extensions([
-                X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:false')])
+                X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:false'))])
         # XXX Add get_extensions so the rest of this unit test can be written.
 
 
@@ -1043,27 +1051,28 @@
         self.assertEqual(get(), None)
 
         # GMT (Or is it UTC?) -exarkun
-        when = "20040203040506Z"
+        when = b("20040203040506Z")
         set(when)
         self.assertEqual(get(), when)
 
         # A plus two hours and thirty minutes offset
-        when = "20040203040506+0530"
+        when = b("20040203040506+0530")
         set(when)
         self.assertEqual(get(), when)
 
         # A minus one hour fifteen minutes offset
-        when = "20040203040506-0115"
+        when = b("20040203040506-0115")
         set(when)
         self.assertEqual(get(), when)
 
         # An invalid string results in a ValueError
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, set, "foo bar")
+        self.assertRaises(ValueError, set, b("foo bar"))
 
         # The wrong number of arguments results in a TypeError.
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, set)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, set, "20040203040506Z", "20040203040506Z")
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, get, "foo bar")
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, set, b("20040203040506Z"), b("20040203040506Z"))
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, get, b("foo bar"))
+
 
     # XXX ASN1_TIME (not GENERALIZEDTIME)
 
@@ -1092,7 +1101,7 @@
         internally.
         """
         cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, self.pemData)
-        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notBefore(), "20090325123658Z")
+        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notBefore(), b("20090325123658Z"))
 
 
     def test_get_notAfter(self):
@@ -1102,7 +1111,7 @@
         internally.
         """
         cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, self.pemData)
-        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notAfter(), "20170611123658Z")
+        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notAfter(), b("20170611123658Z"))
 
 
     def test_gmtime_adj_notBefore_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1124,7 +1133,7 @@
         cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, self.pemData)
         now = datetime.utcnow() + timedelta(seconds=100)
         cert.gmtime_adj_notBefore(100)
-        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notBefore(), now.strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
+        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notBefore(), b(now.strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")))
 
 
     def test_gmtime_adj_notAfter_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1146,7 +1155,7 @@
         cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, self.pemData)
         now = datetime.utcnow() + timedelta(seconds=100)
         cert.gmtime_adj_notAfter(100)
-        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notAfter(), now.strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
+        self.assertEqual(cert.get_notAfter(), b(now.strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")))
 
 
     def test_has_expired_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1186,7 +1195,7 @@
         cert = X509()
         self.assertEqual(
             cert.digest("md5"),
-            "A8:EB:07:F8:53:25:0A:F2:56:05:C5:A5:C4:C4:C7:15")
+            b("A8:EB:07:F8:53:25:0A:F2:56:05:C5:A5:C4:C4:C7:15"))
 
 
     def test_invalid_digest_algorithm(self):
@@ -1215,8 +1224,8 @@
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(subj, X509Name))
         self.assertEquals(
             subj.get_components(),
-            [('C', 'US'), ('ST', 'IL'), ('L', 'Chicago'),
-             ('O', 'Testing'), ('CN', 'Testing Root CA')])
+            [(b('C'), b('US')), (b('ST'), b('IL')), (b('L'), b('Chicago')),
+             (b('O'), b('Testing')), (b('CN'), b('Testing Root CA'))])
 
 
     def test_set_subject_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1242,7 +1251,7 @@
         cert.set_subject(name)
         self.assertEquals(
             cert.get_subject().get_components(),
-            [('C', 'AU'), ('O', 'Unit Tests')])
+            [(b('C'), b('AU')), (b('O'), b('Unit Tests'))])
 
 
     def test_get_issuer_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1260,10 +1269,11 @@
         cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, self.pemData)
         subj = cert.get_issuer()
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(subj, X509Name))
+        comp = subj.get_components()
         self.assertEquals(
-            subj.get_components(),
-            [('C', 'US'), ('ST', 'IL'), ('L', 'Chicago'),
-             ('O', 'Testing'), ('CN', 'Testing Root CA')])
+            comp,
+            [(b('C'), b('US')), (b('ST'), b('IL')), (b('L'), b('Chicago')),
+             (b('O'), b('Testing')), (b('CN'), b('Testing Root CA'))])
 
 
     def test_set_issuer_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1289,7 +1299,7 @@
         cert.set_issuer(name)
         self.assertEquals(
             cert.get_issuer().get_components(),
-            [('C', 'AU'), ('O', 'Unit Tests')])
+            [(b('C'), b('AU')), (b('O'), b('Unit Tests'))])
 
 
     def test_get_pubkey_uninitialized(self):
@@ -1499,8 +1509,8 @@
         """
         passwd = 'whatever'
         e = self.assertRaises(Error, load_pkcs12, 'fruit loops', passwd)
-        self.assertEqual( e[0][0][0], 'asn1 encoding routines')
-        self.assertEqual( len(e[0][0]), 3)
+        self.assertEqual( e.args[0][0][0], 'asn1 encoding routines')
+        self.assertEqual( len(e.args[0][0]), 3)
 
 
     def test_replace(self):
@@ -1531,7 +1541,7 @@
         """
         passwd = 'Dogmeat[]{}!@#$%^&*()~`?/.,<>-_+=";:'
         p12 = self.gen_pkcs12(server_cert_pem, server_key_pem, root_cert_pem)
-        for friendly_name in ['Serverlicious', None, '###']:
+        for friendly_name in [b('Serverlicious'), None, b('###')]:
             p12.set_friendlyname(friendly_name)
             self.assertEqual(p12.get_friendlyname(), friendly_name)
             dumped_p12 = p12.export(passphrase=passwd, iter=2, maciter=3)
@@ -1684,13 +1694,14 @@
     the given PEM to its stdin.  Not safe for quotes.
     """
     if os.name == 'posix':
-        command = "openssl " + " ".join(["'%s'" % (arg.replace("'", "'\\''"),) for arg in args])
+        command = "openssl " + " ".join([
+                "'%s'" % (arg.replace("'", "'\\''"),) for arg in args])
     else:
         command = "openssl " + quoteArguments(args)
-    write, read = popen2(command, "b")
-    write.write(pem)
-    write.close()
-    return read.read()
+    proc = Popen(command, shell=True, stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE)
+    proc.stdin.write(pem)
+    proc.stdin.close()
+    return proc.stdout.read()
 
 
 
@@ -1732,7 +1743,7 @@
         """
         self.assertRaises(
             Error,
-            load_privatekey, FILETYPE_PEM, encryptedPrivateKeyPEM, "quack")
+            load_privatekey, FILETYPE_PEM, encryptedPrivateKeyPEM, b("quack"))
 
 
     def test_load_privatekey_passphrase(self):
@@ -1839,10 +1850,10 @@
         """
         L{dump_privatekey} writes an encrypted PEM when given a passphrase.
         """
-        passphrase = "foo"
+        passphrase = b("foo")
         key = load_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, cleartextPrivateKeyPEM)
         pem = dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key, "blowfish", passphrase)
-        self.assertTrue(isinstance(pem, str))
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(pem, bytes))
         loadedKey = load_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, pem, passphrase)
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(loadedKey, PKeyType))
         self.assertEqual(loadedKey.type(), key.type())
@@ -1911,14 +1922,14 @@
         L{dump_privatekey} writes an encrypted PEM when given a callback which
         returns the correct passphrase.
         """
-        passphrase = "foo"
+        passphrase = b("foo")
         called = []
         def cb(writing):
             called.append(writing)
             return passphrase
         key = load_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, cleartextPrivateKeyPEM)
         pem = dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key, "blowfish", cb)
-        self.assertTrue(isinstance(pem, str))
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(pem, bytes))
         self.assertEqual(called, [True])
         loadedKey = load_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, pem, passphrase)
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(loadedKey, PKeyType))
@@ -2039,7 +2050,7 @@
         L{PKCS7Type.get_type_name} returns a C{str} giving the type name.
         """
         pkcs7 = load_pkcs7_data(FILETYPE_PEM, pkcs7Data)
-        self.assertEquals(pkcs7.get_type_name(), 'pkcs7-signedData')
+        self.assertEquals(pkcs7.get_type_name(), b('pkcs7-signedData'))
 
 
     def test_attribute(self):
@@ -2095,7 +2106,7 @@
         """
         nspki = NetscapeSPKI()
         blob = nspki.b64_encode()
-        self.assertTrue(isinstance(blob, str))
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(blob, bytes))
 
 
 
@@ -2109,11 +2120,11 @@
         that it is empty.
         """
         revoked = Revoked()
-        self.assertTrue( isinstance(revoked, Revoked) )
-        self.assertEqual( type(revoked), Revoked )
-        self.assertEqual( revoked.get_serial(), '00' )
-        self.assertEqual( revoked.get_rev_date(), None )
-        self.assertEqual( revoked.get_reason(), None )
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(revoked, Revoked))
+        self.assertEquals(type(revoked), Revoked)
+        self.assertEquals(revoked.get_serial(), b('00'))
+        self.assertEquals(revoked.get_rev_date(), None)
+        self.assertEquals(revoked.get_reason(), None)
 
 
     def test_construction_wrong_args(self):
@@ -2133,16 +2144,16 @@
         with grace.
         """
         revoked = Revoked()
-        ret = revoked.set_serial('10b')
-        self.assertEqual( ret, None )
+        ret = revoked.set_serial(b('10b'))
+        self.assertEquals(ret, None)
         ser = revoked.get_serial()
-        self.assertEqual( ser, '010B' )
+        self.assertEquals(ser, b('010B'))
 
-        revoked.set_serial('31ppp')  # a type error would be nice
+        revoked.set_serial(b('31ppp'))  # a type error would be nice
         ser = revoked.get_serial()
-        self.assertEqual( ser, '31' )
+        self.assertEquals(ser, b('31'))
 
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, revoked.set_serial, 'pqrst')
+        self.assertRaises(ValueError, revoked.set_serial, b('pqrst'))
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, revoked.set_serial, 100)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, revoked.get_serial, 1)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, revoked.get_serial, None)
@@ -2157,13 +2168,13 @@
         """
         revoked = Revoked()
         date = revoked.get_rev_date()
-        self.assertEqual( date, None )
+        self.assertEquals(date, None)
 
-        now = datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")
+        now = b(datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
         ret = revoked.set_rev_date(now)
-        self.assertEqual( ret, None )
+        self.assertEqual(ret, None)
         date = revoked.get_rev_date()
-        self.assertEqual( date, now )
+        self.assertEqual(date, now)
 
 
     def test_reason(self):
@@ -2174,12 +2185,13 @@
         """
         revoked = Revoked()
         for r in revoked.all_reasons():
-            for x in xrange(2):
+            for x in range(2):
                 ret = revoked.set_reason(r)
-                self.assertEqual( ret, None )
+                self.assertEquals(ret, None)
                 reason = revoked.get_reason()
-                self.assertEqual( reason.lower().replace(' ',''),
-                                       r.lower().replace(' ','') )
+                self.assertEquals(
+                    reason.lower().replace(b(' '), b('')),
+                    r.lower().replace(b(' '), b('')))
                 r = reason # again with the resp of get
 
         revoked.set_reason(None)
@@ -2194,7 +2206,7 @@
         """
         revoked = Revoked()
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, revoked.set_reason, 100)
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, revoked.set_reason, 'blue')
+        self.assertRaises(ValueError, revoked.set_reason, b('blue'))
 
 
     def test_get_reason_wrong_arguments(self):
@@ -2244,25 +2256,25 @@
         """
         crl = CRL()
         revoked = Revoked()
-        now = datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")
+        now = b(datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
         revoked.set_rev_date(now)
-        revoked.set_serial('3ab')
-        revoked.set_reason('sUpErSeDEd')
+        revoked.set_serial(b('3ab'))
+        revoked.set_reason(b('sUpErSeDEd'))
         crl.add_revoked(revoked)
 
         # PEM format
         dumped_crl = crl.export(self.cert, self.pkey, days=20)
         text = _runopenssl(dumped_crl, "crl", "-noout", "-text")
-        text.index('Serial Number: 03AB')
-        text.index('Superseded')
-        text.index('Issuer: /C=US/ST=IL/L=Chicago/O=Testing/CN=Testing Root CA')
+        text.index(b('Serial Number: 03AB'))
+        text.index(b('Superseded'))
+        text.index(b('Issuer: /C=US/ST=IL/L=Chicago/O=Testing/CN=Testing Root CA'))
 
         # DER format
         dumped_crl = crl.export(self.cert, self.pkey, FILETYPE_ASN1)
         text = _runopenssl(dumped_crl, "crl", "-noout", "-text", "-inform", "DER")
-        text.index('Serial Number: 03AB')
-        text.index('Superseded')
-        text.index('Issuer: /C=US/ST=IL/L=Chicago/O=Testing/CN=Testing Root CA')
+        text.index(b('Serial Number: 03AB'))
+        text.index(b('Superseded'))
+        text.index(b('Issuer: /C=US/ST=IL/L=Chicago/O=Testing/CN=Testing Root CA'))
 
         # text format
         dumped_text = crl.export(self.cert, self.pkey, type=FILETYPE_TEXT)
@@ -2317,20 +2329,20 @@
         crl = CRL()
 
         revoked = Revoked()
-        now = datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ")
+        now = b(datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d%H%M%SZ"))
         revoked.set_rev_date(now)
-        revoked.set_serial('3ab')
+        revoked.set_serial(b('3ab'))
         crl.add_revoked(revoked)
-        revoked.set_serial('100')
-        revoked.set_reason('sUpErSeDEd')
+        revoked.set_serial(b('100'))
+        revoked.set_reason(b('sUpErSeDEd'))
         crl.add_revoked(revoked)
 
         revs = crl.get_revoked()
         self.assertEqual(len(revs), 2)
         self.assertEqual(type(revs[0]), Revoked)
         self.assertEqual(type(revs[1]), Revoked)
-        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), '03AB')
-        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), '0100')
+        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), b('03AB'))
+        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), b('0100'))
         self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_rev_date(), now)
         self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_rev_date(), now)
 
@@ -2366,19 +2378,19 @@
         crl = load_crl(FILETYPE_PEM, crlData)
         revs = crl.get_revoked()
         self.assertEqual(len(revs), 2)
-        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), '03AB')
+        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), b('03AB'))
         self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_reason(), None)
-        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), '0100')
-        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_reason(), 'Superseded')
+        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), b('0100'))
+        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_reason(), b('Superseded'))
 
         der = _runopenssl(crlData, "crl", "-outform", "DER")
         crl = load_crl(FILETYPE_ASN1, der)
         revs = crl.get_revoked()
         self.assertEqual(len(revs), 2)
-        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), '03AB')
+        self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_serial(), b('03AB'))
         self.assertEqual(revs[0].get_reason(), None)
-        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), '0100')
-        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_reason(), 'Superseded')
+        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_serial(), b('0100'))
+        self.assertEqual(revs[1].get_reason(), b('Superseded'))
 
 
     def test_load_crl_wrong_args(self):
@@ -2415,7 +2427,7 @@
         """
         L{sign} generates a cryptographic signature which L{verify} can check.
         """
-        content = (
+        content = b(
             "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking "
             "thirteen. Winston Smith, his chin nuzzled into his breast in an "
             "effort to escape the vile wind, slipped quickly through the "
@@ -2429,7 +2441,7 @@
         # certificate unrelated to priv_key, used to trigger an error
         bad_cert = load_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, server_cert_pem)
 
-        for digest in ('md5', 'sha1'):
+        for digest in (b('md5'), b('sha1')):
             sig = sign(priv_key, content, digest)
 
             # Verify the signature of content, will throw an exception if error.
@@ -2441,11 +2453,15 @@
 
             # This should fail because we've "tainted" the content after
             # signing it.
-            self.assertRaises(Error, verify, good_cert, sig, content+"tainted", digest)
+            self.assertRaises(
+                Error, verify,
+                good_cert, sig, content + b("tainted"), digest)
 
         # test that unknown digest types fail
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, sign, priv_key, content, "strange-digest")
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, verify, good_cert, sig, content, "strange-digest")
+        self.assertRaises(
+            ValueError, sign, priv_key, content, b("strange-digest"))
+        self.assertRaises(
+            ValueError, verify, good_cert, sig, content, b("strange-digest"))
 
 
 if __name__ == '__main__':
diff --git a/OpenSSL/test/test_rand.py b/OpenSSL/test/test_rand.py
index 2849f38..a785168 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/test/test_rand.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/test/test_rand.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 import os
 import stat
 
-from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase
+from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase, b
 from OpenSSL import rand
 
 
@@ -46,16 +46,16 @@
         type C{str} and C{int}, L{OpenSSL.rand.add} raises L{TypeError}.
         """
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add, "foo", None)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add, b("foo"), None)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add, None, 3)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add, "foo", 3, None)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.add, b("foo"), 3, None)
 
 
     def test_add(self):
         """
         L{OpenSSL.rand.add} adds entropy to the PRNG.
         """
-        rand.add('hamburger', 3)
+        rand.add(b('hamburger'), 3)
 
 
     def test_seed_wrong_args(self):
@@ -65,14 +65,14 @@
         """
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.seed)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.seed, None)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.seed, "foo", None)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, rand.seed, b("foo"), None)
 
 
     def test_seed(self):
         """
         L{OpenSSL.rand.seed} adds entropy to the PRNG.
         """
-        rand.seed('milk shake')
+        rand.seed(b('milk shake'))
 
 
     def test_status_wrong_args(self):
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@
         # Write random bytes to a file
         tmpfile = self.mktemp()
         # Make sure it exists (so cleanup definitely succeeds)
-        fObj = file(tmpfile, 'w')
+        fObj = open(tmpfile, 'w')
         fObj.close()
         try:
             rand.write_file(tmpfile)
diff --git a/OpenSSL/test/test_ssl.py b/OpenSSL/test/test_ssl.py
index 1ba80ab..6c8579b 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/test/test_ssl.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/test/test_ssl.py
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
 from OpenSSL.SSL import Error, SysCallError, WantReadError, ZeroReturnError
 from OpenSSL.SSL import Context, ContextType, Connection, ConnectionType
 
-from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase
+from OpenSSL.test.util import TestCase, bytes, b
 from OpenSSL.test.test_crypto import cleartextCertificatePEM, cleartextPrivateKeyPEM
 from OpenSSL.test.test_crypto import client_cert_pem, client_key_pem
 from OpenSSL.test.test_crypto import server_cert_pem, server_key_pem, root_cert_pem
@@ -52,7 +52,6 @@
 
 
 def verify_cb(conn, cert, errnum, depth, ok):
-    # print conn, cert, X509_verify_cert_error_string(errnum), depth, ok
     return ok
 
 def socket_pair():
@@ -72,10 +71,10 @@
     # Let's pass some unencrypted data to make sure our socket connection is
     # fine.  Just one byte, so we don't have to worry about buffers getting
     # filled up or fragmentation.
-    server.send("x")
-    assert client.recv(1024) == "x"
-    client.send("y")
-    assert server.recv(1024) == "y"
+    server.send(b("x"))
+    assert client.recv(1024) == b("x")
+    client.send(b("y"))
+    assert server.recv(1024) == b("y")
 
     # Most of our callers want non-blocking sockets, make it easy for them.
     server.setblocking(False)
@@ -85,6 +84,18 @@
 
 
 
+def handshake(client, server):
+    conns = [client, server]
+    while conns:
+        for conn in conns:
+            try:
+                conn.do_handshake()
+            except WantReadError:
+                pass
+            else:
+                conns.remove(conn)
+
+
 class _LoopbackMixin:
     """
     Helper mixin which defines methods for creating a connected socket pair and
@@ -101,12 +112,7 @@
         client = Connection(Context(TLSv1_METHOD), client)
         client.set_connect_state()
 
-        for i in range(3):
-            for conn in [client, server]:
-                try:
-                    conn.do_handshake()
-                except WantReadError:
-                    pass
+        handshake(client, server)
 
         server.setblocking(True)
         client.setblocking(True)
@@ -305,8 +311,9 @@
         key = PKey()
         key.generate_key(TYPE_RSA, 128)
         pemFile = self.mktemp()
-        fObj = file(pemFile, 'w')
-        fObj.write(dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key, "blowfish", passphrase))
+        fObj = open(pemFile, 'w')
+        pem = dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key, "blowfish", passphrase)
+        fObj.write(pem.decode('ascii'))
         fObj.close()
         return pemFile
 
@@ -327,7 +334,7 @@
         L{Context.set_passwd_cb} accepts a callable which will be invoked when
         a private key is loaded from an encrypted PEM.
         """
-        passphrase = "foobar"
+        passphrase = b("foobar")
         pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem(passphrase)
         calledWith = []
         def passphraseCallback(maxlen, verify, extra):
@@ -347,7 +354,7 @@
         L{Context.use_privatekey_file} propagates any exception raised by the
         passphrase callback.
         """
-        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem("monkeys are nice")
+        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem(b("monkeys are nice"))
         def passphraseCallback(maxlen, verify, extra):
             raise RuntimeError("Sorry, I am a fail.")
 
@@ -361,7 +368,7 @@
         L{Context.use_privatekey_file} raises L{OpenSSL.SSL.Error} if the
         passphrase callback returns a false value.
         """
-        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem("monkeys are nice")
+        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem(b("monkeys are nice"))
         def passphraseCallback(maxlen, verify, extra):
             return None
 
@@ -375,7 +382,7 @@
         L{Context.use_privatekey_file} raises L{OpenSSL.SSL.Error} if the
         passphrase callback returns a true non-string value.
         """
-        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem("monkeys are nice")
+        pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem(b("monkeys are nice"))
         def passphraseCallback(maxlen, verify, extra):
             return 10
 
@@ -390,11 +397,11 @@
         longer than the indicated maximum length, it is truncated.
         """
         # A priori knowledge!
-        passphrase = "x" * 1024
+        passphrase = b("x") * 1024
         pemFile = self._write_encrypted_pem(passphrase)
         def passphraseCallback(maxlen, verify, extra):
             assert maxlen == 1024
-            return passphrase + "y"
+            return passphrase + b("y")
 
         context = Context(TLSv1_METHOD)
         context.set_passwd_cb(passphraseCallback)
@@ -465,16 +472,11 @@
         serverSSL = Connection(serverContext, server)
         serverSSL.set_accept_state()
 
-        for i in range(3):
-            for ssl in clientSSL, serverSSL:
-                try:
-                    # Without load_verify_locations above, the handshake
-                    # will fail:
-                    # Error: [('SSL routines', 'SSL3_GET_SERVER_CERTIFICATE',
-                    #          'certificate verify failed')]
-                    ssl.do_handshake()
-                except WantReadError:
-                    pass
+        # Without load_verify_locations above, the handshake
+        # will fail:
+        # Error: [('SSL routines', 'SSL3_GET_SERVER_CERTIFICATE',
+        #          'certificate verify failed')]
+        handshake(clientSSL, serverSSL)
 
         cert = clientSSL.get_peer_certificate()
         self.assertEqual(cert.get_subject().CN, 'Testing Root CA')
@@ -486,8 +488,8 @@
         certificates within for verification purposes.
         """
         cafile = self.mktemp()
-        fObj = file(cafile, 'w')
-        fObj.write(cleartextCertificatePEM)
+        fObj = open(cafile, 'w')
+        fObj.write(cleartextCertificatePEM.decode('ascii'))
         fObj.close()
 
         self._load_verify_locations_test(cafile)
@@ -513,8 +515,8 @@
         # Hash value computed manually with c_rehash to avoid depending on
         # c_rehash in the test suite.
         cafile = join(capath, 'c7adac82.0')
-        fObj = file(cafile, 'w')
-        fObj.write(cleartextCertificatePEM)
+        fObj = open(cafile, 'w')
+        fObj.write(cleartextCertificatePEM.decode('ascii'))
         fObj.close()
 
         self._load_verify_locations_test(None, capath)
@@ -596,7 +598,7 @@
             2. A new intermediate certificate signed by cacert (icert)
             3. A new server certificate signed by icert (scert)
         """
-        caext = X509Extension('basicConstraints', False, 'CA:true')
+        caext = X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), False, b('CA:true'))
 
         # Step 1
         cakey = PKey()
@@ -605,8 +607,8 @@
         cacert.get_subject().commonName = "Authority Certificate"
         cacert.set_issuer(cacert.get_subject())
         cacert.set_pubkey(cakey)
-        cacert.set_notBefore("20000101000000Z")
-        cacert.set_notAfter("20200101000000Z")
+        cacert.set_notBefore(b("20000101000000Z"))
+        cacert.set_notAfter(b("20200101000000Z"))
         cacert.add_extensions([caext])
         cacert.set_serial_number(0)
         cacert.sign(cakey, "sha1")
@@ -618,8 +620,8 @@
         icert.get_subject().commonName = "Intermediate Certificate"
         icert.set_issuer(cacert.get_subject())
         icert.set_pubkey(ikey)
-        icert.set_notBefore("20000101000000Z")
-        icert.set_notAfter("20200101000000Z")
+        icert.set_notBefore(b("20000101000000Z"))
+        icert.set_notAfter(b("20200101000000Z"))
         icert.add_extensions([caext])
         icert.set_serial_number(0)
         icert.sign(cakey, "sha1")
@@ -631,9 +633,10 @@
         scert.get_subject().commonName = "Server Certificate"
         scert.set_issuer(icert.get_subject())
         scert.set_pubkey(skey)
-        scert.set_notBefore("20000101000000Z")
-        scert.set_notAfter("20200101000000Z")
-        scert.add_extensions([X509Extension('basicConstraints', True, 'CA:false')])
+        scert.set_notBefore(b("20000101000000Z"))
+        scert.set_notAfter(b("20200101000000Z"))
+        scert.add_extensions([
+                X509Extension(b('basicConstraints'), True, b('CA:false'))])
         scert.set_serial_number(0)
         scert.sign(ikey, "sha1")
 
@@ -681,16 +684,13 @@
         # Dump the CA certificate to a file because that's the only way to load
         # it as a trusted CA in the client context.
         for cert, name in [(cacert, 'ca.pem'), (icert, 'i.pem'), (scert, 's.pem')]:
-            fObj = file(name, 'w')
-            fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cert))
-            fObj.close()
-            fObj = file(name.replace('pem', 'asn1'), 'w')
-            fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_ASN1, cert))
+            fObj = open(name, 'w')
+            fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cert).decode('ascii'))
             fObj.close()
 
         for key, name in [(cakey, 'ca.key'), (ikey, 'i.key'), (skey, 's.key')]:
-            fObj = file(name, 'w')
-            fObj.write(dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key))
+            fObj = open(name, 'w')
+            fObj.write(dump_privatekey(FILETYPE_PEM, key).decode('ascii'))
             fObj.close()
 
         # Create the server context
@@ -724,19 +724,19 @@
 
         # Write out the chain file.
         chainFile = self.mktemp()
-        fObj = file(chainFile, 'w')
+        fObj = open(chainFile, 'w')
         # Most specific to least general.
-        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, scert))
-        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, icert))
-        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cacert))
+        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, scert).decode('ascii'))
+        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, icert).decode('ascii'))
+        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cacert).decode('ascii'))
         fObj.close()
 
         serverContext = Context(TLSv1_METHOD)
         serverContext.use_certificate_chain_file(chainFile)
         serverContext.use_privatekey(skey)
 
-        fObj = file('ca.pem', 'w')
-        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cacert))
+        fObj = open('ca.pem', 'w')
+        fObj.write(dump_certificate(FILETYPE_PEM, cacert).decode('ascii'))
         fObj.close()
 
         clientContext = Context(TLSv1_METHOD)
@@ -921,21 +921,24 @@
         # XXX An assertion?  Or something?
 
 
-    def test_connect_ex(self):
-        """
-        If there is a connection error, L{Connection.connect_ex} returns the
-        errno instead of raising an exception.
-        """
-        port = socket()
-        port.bind(('', 0))
-        port.listen(3)
+    if platform == "darwin":
+        "connect_ex sometimes causes a kernel panic on OS X 10.6.4"
+    else:
+        def test_connect_ex(self):
+            """
+            If there is a connection error, L{Connection.connect_ex} returns the
+            errno instead of raising an exception.
+            """
+            port = socket()
+            port.bind(('', 0))
+            port.listen(3)
 
-        clientSSL = Connection(Context(TLSv1_METHOD), socket())
-        clientSSL.setblocking(False)
-        result = clientSSL.connect_ex(port.getsockname())
-        expected = (EINPROGRESS, EWOULDBLOCK)
-        self.assertTrue(
-                result in expected, "%r not in %r" % (result, expected))
+            clientSSL = Connection(Context(TLSv1_METHOD), socket())
+            clientSSL.setblocking(False)
+            result = clientSSL.connect_ex(port.getsockname())
+            expected = (EINPROGRESS, EWOULDBLOCK)
+            self.assertTrue(
+                    result in expected, "%r not in %r" % (result, expected))
 
 
     def test_accept_wrong_args(self):
@@ -1092,8 +1095,8 @@
         it.
         """
         server, client = self._loopback()
-        server.sendall('x')
-        self.assertEquals(client.recv(1), 'x')
+        server.sendall(b('x'))
+        self.assertEquals(client.recv(1), b('x'))
 
 
     def test_long(self):
@@ -1105,15 +1108,15 @@
         # Should be enough, underlying SSL_write should only do 16k at a time.
         # On Windows, after 32k of bytes the write will block (forever - because
         # no one is yet reading).
-        message ='x' * (1024 * 32 - 1) + 'y'
+        message = b('x') * (1024 * 32 - 1) + b('y')
         server.sendall(message)
         accum = []
         received = 0
         while received < len(message):
-            bytes = client.recv(1024)
-            accum.append(bytes)
-            received += len(bytes)
-        self.assertEquals(message, ''.join(accum))
+            data = client.recv(1024)
+            accum.append(data)
+            received += len(data)
+        self.assertEquals(message, b('').join(accum))
 
 
     def test_closed(self):
@@ -1122,8 +1125,7 @@
         write error from the low level write call.
         """
         server, client = self._loopback()
-        client.close()
-        server.sendall("hello, world")
+        server.sock_shutdown(2)
         self.assertRaises(SysCallError, server.sendall, "hello, world")
 
 
@@ -1314,7 +1316,7 @@
         self.assertNotEquals(client_conn.client_random(), client_conn.server_random())
 
         # Here are the bytes we'll try to send.
-        important_message = 'One if by land, two if by sea.'
+        important_message = b('One if by land, two if by sea.')
 
         server_conn.write(important_message)
         self.assertEquals(
@@ -1337,26 +1339,9 @@
         code, as no memory BIO is involved here).  Even though this isn't a
         memory BIO test, it's convenient to have it here.
         """
-        (server, client) = socket_pair()
+        server_conn, client_conn = self._loopback()
 
-        # Let the encryption begin...
-        client_conn = self._client(client)
-        server_conn = self._server(server)
-
-        # Establish the connection
-        established = False
-        while not established:
-            established = True  # assume the best
-            for ssl in client_conn, server_conn:
-                try:
-                    # Generally a recv() or send() could also work instead
-                    # of do_handshake(), and we would stop on the first
-                    # non-exception.
-                    ssl.do_handshake()
-                except WantReadError:
-                    established = False
-
-        important_message = "Help me Obi Wan Kenobi, you're my only hope."
+        important_message = b("Help me Obi Wan Kenobi, you're my only hope.")
         client_conn.send(important_message)
         msg = server_conn.recv(1024)
         self.assertEqual(msg, important_message)
diff --git a/OpenSSL/test/util.py b/OpenSSL/test/util.py
index 34585ee..61246a6 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/test/util.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/test/util.py
@@ -16,6 +16,17 @@
 from OpenSSL.crypto import Error, _exception_from_error_queue
 
 
+try:
+    bytes = bytes
+except NameError:
+    def b(s):
+        return s
+    bytes = str
+else:
+    def b(s):
+        return s.encode("ascii")
+
+
 class TestCase(TestCase):
     """
     L{TestCase} adds useful testing functionality beyond what is available
@@ -35,7 +46,8 @@
                     os.unlink(temp)
         try:
             _exception_from_error_queue()
-        except Error, e:
+        except Error:
+            e = sys.exc_info()[1]
             if e.args != ([],):
                 self.fail("Left over errors in OpenSSL error queue: " + repr(e))
 
@@ -86,7 +98,8 @@
         """
         try:
             result = f(*args, **kwargs)
-        except exception, inst:
+        except exception:
+            inst = sys.exc_info()[1]
             return inst
         except:
             raise self.failureException('%s raised instead of %s'
diff --git a/OpenSSL/tsafe.py b/OpenSSL/tsafe.py
index 2b5f1a2..fe4b75f 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/tsafe.py
+++ b/OpenSSL/tsafe.py
@@ -19,10 +19,10 @@
               'sock_shutdown', 'get_peer_certificate', 'want_read',
               'want_write', 'set_connect_state', 'set_accept_state',
               'connect_ex', 'sendall'):
-        exec """def %s(self, *args):
+        exec("""def %s(self, *args):
             self._lock.acquire()
             try:
-                return apply(self._ssl_conn.%s, args)
+                return self._ssl_conn.%s(*args)
             finally:
-                self._lock.release()\n""" % (f, f)
+                self._lock.release()\n""" % (f, f))
 
diff --git a/OpenSSL/util.c b/OpenSSL/util.c
index ae6ee5e..3859cb8 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/util.c
+++ b/OpenSSL/util.c
@@ -59,3 +59,37 @@
     PyObject *list = error_queue_to_list();
     Py_DECREF(list);
 }
+
+#if (PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x02600000)
+PyObject* PyOpenSSL_LongToHex(PyObject *o) {
+    PyObject *hex = NULL;
+    PyObject *format = NULL;
+    PyObject *format_args = NULL;
+
+    if ((format_args = Py_BuildValue("(O)", o)) == NULL) {
+        goto err;
+    }
+
+    if ((format = PyString_FromString("%x")) == NULL) {
+        goto err;
+    }
+
+    if ((hex = PyString_Format(format, format_args)) == NULL) {
+        goto err;
+    }
+
+    return hex;
+
+  err:
+    if (format_args) {
+        Py_DECREF(format_args);
+    }
+    if (format) {
+        Py_DECREF(format);
+    }
+    if (hex) {
+        Py_DECREF(hex);
+    }
+    return NULL;
+}
+#endif
diff --git a/OpenSSL/util.h b/OpenSSL/util.h
index d1157a7..bfbbb6c 100644
--- a/OpenSSL/util.h
+++ b/OpenSSL/util.h
@@ -22,6 +22,12 @@
  */
 #include "pymemcompat.h"
 
+/*
+ * py3k defines macros that help with Python 2.x/3.x compatibility.
+ */
+#include "py3k.h"
+
+
 extern  PyObject *error_queue_to_list(void);
 extern void exception_from_error_queue(PyObject *the_Error);
 extern  void      flush_error_queue(void);
@@ -125,4 +131,10 @@
 #define PY_SSIZE_T_MIN INT_MIN
 #endif
 
+#if (PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x02600000)
+extern PyObject* PyOpenSSL_LongToHex(PyObject *o);
+#else
+#define PyOpenSSL_LongToHex(o) PyNumber_ToBase(o, 16)
+#endif
+
 #endif