Move code generators to codegen/ directory.

We are up to having seven distinct types of codegen, and will soon have
an 8th (DSL C++).

Change-Id: I6758328390c234ba1d5c30c118199dbc820af52a
Reviewed-on: https://skia-review.googlesource.com/c/skia/+/395817
Commit-Queue: John Stiles <johnstiles@google.com>
Auto-Submit: John Stiles <johnstiles@google.com>
Reviewed-by: Ethan Nicholas <ethannicholas@google.com>
diff --git a/src/sksl/codegen/SkSLMetalCodeGenerator.cpp b/src/sksl/codegen/SkSLMetalCodeGenerator.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb6b81e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/sksl/codegen/SkSLMetalCodeGenerator.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,2447 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright 2016 Google Inc.
+ *
+ * Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
+ * found in the LICENSE file.
+ */
+
+#include "src/sksl/codegen/SkSLMetalCodeGenerator.h"
+
+#include "src/core/SkScopeExit.h"
+#include "src/sksl/SkSLCompiler.h"
+#include "src/sksl/SkSLMemoryLayout.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorArray.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorCompoundCast.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorDiagonalMatrix.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorMatrixResize.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorSplat.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLConstructorStruct.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLExpressionStatement.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLExtension.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLIndexExpression.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLModifiersDeclaration.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLNop.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLStructDefinition.h"
+#include "src/sksl/ir/SkSLVariableReference.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+
+namespace SkSL {
+
+const char* MetalCodeGenerator::OperatorName(Operator op) {
+    switch (op.kind()) {
+        case Token::Kind::TK_LOGICALXOR:  return "!=";
+        default:                          return op.operatorName();
+    }
+}
+
+class MetalCodeGenerator::GlobalStructVisitor {
+public:
+    virtual ~GlobalStructVisitor() = default;
+    virtual void visitInterfaceBlock(const InterfaceBlock& block, const String& blockName) = 0;
+    virtual void visitTexture(const Type& type, const String& name) = 0;
+    virtual void visitSampler(const Type& type, const String& name) = 0;
+    virtual void visitVariable(const Variable& var, const Expression* value) = 0;
+};
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::setupIntrinsics() {
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("atan")]               = kAtan_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("floatBitsToInt")]     = kBitcast_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("floatBitsToUint")]    = kBitcast_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("intBitsToFloat")]     = kBitcast_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("uintBitsToFloat")]    = kBitcast_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("equal")]              = kCompareEqual_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("notEqual")]           = kCompareNotEqual_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("lessThan")]           = kCompareLessThan_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("lessThanEqual")]      = kCompareLessThanEqual_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("greaterThan")]        = kCompareGreaterThan_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("greaterThanEqual")]   = kCompareGreaterThanEqual_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("degrees")]            = kDegrees_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("dFdx")]               = kDFdx_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("dFdy")]               = kDFdy_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("distance")]           = kDistance_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("dot")]                = kDot_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("faceforward")]        = kFaceforward_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("bitCount")]           = kBitCount_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("findLSB")]            = kFindLSB_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("findMSB")]            = kFindMSB_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("inverse")]            = kInverse_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("inversesqrt")]        = kInversesqrt_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("length")]             = kLength_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("matrixCompMult")]     = kMatrixCompMult_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("mod")]                = kMod_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("normalize")]          = kNormalize_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("radians")]            = kRadians_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("reflect")]            = kReflect_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("refract")]            = kRefract_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("roundEven")]          = kRoundEven_IntrinsicKind;
+    fIntrinsicMap[String("sample")]             = kTexture_IntrinsicKind;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::write(const char* s) {
+    if (!s[0]) {
+        return;
+    }
+    if (fAtLineStart) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < fIndentation; i++) {
+            fOut->writeText("    ");
+        }
+    }
+    fOut->writeText(s);
+    fAtLineStart = false;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeLine(const char* s) {
+    this->write(s);
+    this->writeLine();
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::write(const String& s) {
+    this->write(s.c_str());
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeLine(const String& s) {
+    this->writeLine(s.c_str());
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeLine() {
+    fOut->writeText(fLineEnding);
+    fAtLineStart = true;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::finishLine() {
+    if (!fAtLineStart) {
+        this->writeLine();
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeExtension(const Extension& ext) {
+    this->writeLine("#extension " + ext.name() + " : enable");
+}
+
+String MetalCodeGenerator::typeName(const Type& type) {
+    switch (type.typeKind()) {
+        case Type::TypeKind::kArray:
+            SkASSERTF(type.columns() > 0, "invalid array size: %s", type.description().c_str());
+            return String::printf("array<%s, %d>",
+                                  this->typeName(type.componentType()).c_str(), type.columns());
+
+        case Type::TypeKind::kVector:
+            return this->typeName(type.componentType()) + to_string(type.columns());
+
+        case Type::TypeKind::kMatrix:
+            return this->typeName(type.componentType()) + to_string(type.columns()) + "x" +
+                                  to_string(type.rows());
+
+        case Type::TypeKind::kSampler:
+            return "texture2d<float>"; // FIXME - support other texture types
+
+        case Type::TypeKind::kEnum:
+            return "int";
+
+        default:
+            if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fHalf) {
+                // FIXME - Currently only supporting floats in MSL to avoid type coercion issues.
+                return fContext.fTypes.fFloat->name();
+            } else if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fByte) {
+                return "char";
+            } else if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fUByte) {
+                return "uchar";
+            } else {
+                return type.name();
+            }
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeStructDefinition(const StructDefinition& s) {
+    const Type& type = s.type();
+    this->writeLine("struct " + type.name() + " {");
+    fIndentation++;
+    this->writeFields(type.fields(), type.fOffset);
+    fIndentation--;
+    this->writeLine("};");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeType(const Type& type) {
+    this->write(this->typeName(type));
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeExpression(const Expression& expr, Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    switch (expr.kind()) {
+        case Expression::Kind::kBinary:
+            this->writeBinaryExpression(expr.as<BinaryExpression>(), parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kBoolLiteral:
+            this->writeBoolLiteral(expr.as<BoolLiteral>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorArray:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorStruct:
+            this->writeAnyConstructor(expr.asAnyConstructor(), "{", "}", parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorCompound:
+            this->writeConstructorCompound(expr.as<ConstructorCompound>(), parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorDiagonalMatrix:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorSplat:
+            this->writeAnyConstructor(expr.asAnyConstructor(), "(", ")", parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorMatrixResize:
+            this->writeConstructorMatrixResize(expr.as<ConstructorMatrixResize>(),
+                                               parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorScalarCast:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorCompoundCast:
+            this->writeCastConstructor(expr.asAnyConstructor(), "(", ")", parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kIntLiteral:
+            this->writeIntLiteral(expr.as<IntLiteral>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kFieldAccess:
+            this->writeFieldAccess(expr.as<FieldAccess>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kFloatLiteral:
+            this->writeFloatLiteral(expr.as<FloatLiteral>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kFunctionCall:
+            this->writeFunctionCall(expr.as<FunctionCall>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kPrefix:
+            this->writePrefixExpression(expr.as<PrefixExpression>(), parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kPostfix:
+            this->writePostfixExpression(expr.as<PostfixExpression>(), parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kSetting:
+            this->writeSetting(expr.as<Setting>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kSwizzle:
+            this->writeSwizzle(expr.as<Swizzle>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kVariableReference:
+            this->writeVariableReference(expr.as<VariableReference>());
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kTernary:
+            this->writeTernaryExpression(expr.as<TernaryExpression>(), parentPrecedence);
+            break;
+        case Expression::Kind::kIndex:
+            this->writeIndexExpression(expr.as<IndexExpression>());
+            break;
+        default:
+            SkDEBUGFAILF("unsupported expression: %s", expr.description().c_str());
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
+String MetalCodeGenerator::getOutParamHelper(const FunctionCall& call,
+                                             const ExpressionArray& arguments,
+                                             const SkTArray<VariableReference*>& outVars) {
+    AutoOutputStream outputToExtraFunctions(this, &fExtraFunctions, &fIndentation);
+    const FunctionDeclaration& function = call.function();
+
+    String name = "_skOutParamHelper" + to_string(fSwizzleHelperCount++) +
+                  "_" + function.mangledName();
+    const char* separator = "";
+
+    // Emit a prototype for the function we'll be calling through to in our helper.
+    if (!function.isBuiltin()) {
+        this->writeFunctionDeclaration(function);
+        this->writeLine(";");
+    }
+
+    // Synthesize a helper function that takes the same inputs as `function`, except in places where
+    // `outVars` is non-null; in those places, we take the type of the VariableReference.
+    //
+    // float _skOutParamHelper0_originalFuncName(float _var0, float _var1, float& outParam) {
+    this->writeType(call.type());
+    this->write(" ");
+    this->write(name);
+    this->write("(");
+    this->writeFunctionRequirementParams(function, separator);
+
+    SkASSERT(outVars.size() == arguments.size());
+    SkASSERT(outVars.size() == function.parameters().size());
+
+    // We need to detect cases where the caller passes the same variable as an out-param more than
+    // once, and avoid reusing the variable name. (In those cases we can actually just ignore the
+    // redundant input parameter entirely, and not give it any name.)
+    std::unordered_set<const Variable*> writtenVars;
+
+    for (int index = 0; index < arguments.count(); ++index) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+
+        const Variable* param = function.parameters()[index];
+        this->writeModifiers(param->modifiers(), /*globalContext=*/false);
+
+        const Type* type = outVars[index] ? &outVars[index]->type() : &arguments[index]->type();
+        this->writeType(*type);
+
+        if (param->modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+            this->write("&");
+        }
+        if (outVars[index]) {
+            auto [iter, didInsert] = writtenVars.insert(outVars[index]->variable());
+            if (didInsert) {
+                this->write(" ");
+                fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = true;
+                this->writeVariableReference(*outVars[index]);
+                fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = false;
+            }
+        } else {
+            this->write(" _var");
+            this->write(to_string(index));
+        }
+    }
+    this->writeLine(") {");
+
+    ++fIndentation;
+    for (int index = 0; index < outVars.count(); ++index) {
+        if (!outVars[index]) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // float3 _var2[ = outParam.zyx];
+        this->writeType(arguments[index]->type());
+        this->write(" _var");
+        this->write(to_string(index));
+
+        const Variable* param = function.parameters()[index];
+        if (param->modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kIn_Flag) {
+            this->write(" = ");
+            fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = true;
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[index], Precedence::kAssignment);
+            fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = false;
+        }
+
+        this->writeLine(";");
+    }
+
+    // [int _skResult = ] myFunction(inputs, outputs, _globals, _var0, _var1, _var2, _var3);
+    bool hasResult = (call.type().name() != "void");
+    if (hasResult) {
+        this->writeType(call.type());
+        this->write(" _skResult = ");
+    }
+
+    this->writeName(function.mangledName());
+    this->write("(");
+    separator = "";
+    this->writeFunctionRequirementArgs(function, separator);
+
+    for (int index = 0; index < arguments.count(); ++index) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+
+        this->write("_var");
+        this->write(to_string(index));
+    }
+    this->writeLine(");");
+
+    for (int index = 0; index < outVars.count(); ++index) {
+        if (!outVars[index]) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        // outParam.zyx = _var2;
+        fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = true;
+        this->writeExpression(*arguments[index], Precedence::kAssignment);
+        fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers = false;
+        this->write(" = _var");
+        this->write(to_string(index));
+        this->writeLine(";");
+    }
+
+    if (hasResult) {
+        this->writeLine("return _skResult;");
+    }
+
+    --fIndentation;
+    this->writeLine("}");
+
+    return name;
+}
+
+String MetalCodeGenerator::getBitcastIntrinsic(const Type& outType) {
+    return "as_type<" +  outType.displayName() + ">";
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunctionCall(const FunctionCall& c) {
+    const FunctionDeclaration& function = c.function();
+    // If this function is a built-in with no declaration, it's probably an intrinsic and might need
+    // special handling.
+    if (function.isBuiltin() && !function.definition()) {
+        auto iter = fIntrinsicMap.find(function.name());
+        if (iter != fIntrinsicMap.end()) {
+            this->writeIntrinsicCall(c, iter->second);
+            return;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Determine whether or not we need to emulate GLSL's out-param semantics for Metal using a
+    // helper function. (Specifically, out-parameters in GLSL are only written back to the original
+    // variable at the end of the function call; also, swizzles are supported, whereas Metal doesn't
+    // allow a swizzle to be passed to a `floatN&`.)
+    const ExpressionArray& arguments = c.arguments();
+    const std::vector<const Variable*>& parameters = function.parameters();
+    SkASSERT(arguments.size() == parameters.size());
+
+    bool foundOutParam = false;
+    SkSTArray<16, VariableReference*> outVars;
+    outVars.push_back_n(arguments.count(), (VariableReference*)nullptr);
+
+    for (int index = 0; index < arguments.count(); ++index) {
+        // If this is an out parameter...
+        if (parameters[index]->modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+            // Find the expression's inner variable being written to.
+            Analysis::AssignmentInfo info;
+            // Assignability was verified at IRGeneration time, so this should always succeed.
+            SkAssertResult(Analysis::IsAssignable(*arguments[index], &info));
+            outVars[index] = info.fAssignedVar;
+            foundOutParam = true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (foundOutParam) {
+        // Out parameters need to be written back to at the end of the function. To do this, we
+        // synthesize a helper function which evaluates the out-param expression into a temporary
+        // variable, calls the original function, then writes the temp var back into the out param
+        // using the original out-param expression. (This lets us support things like swizzles and
+        // array indices.)
+        this->write(getOutParamHelper(c, arguments, outVars));
+    } else {
+        this->write(function.mangledName());
+    }
+
+    this->write("(");
+    const char* separator = "";
+    this->writeFunctionRequirementArgs(function, separator);
+    for (int i = 0; i < arguments.count(); ++i) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+
+        if (outVars[i]) {
+            this->writeExpression(*outVars[i], Precedence::kSequence);
+        } else {
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[i], Precedence::kSequence);
+        }
+    }
+    this->write(")");
+}
+
+static constexpr char kInverse2x2[] = R"(
+float2x2 float2x2_inverse(float2x2 m) {
+    return float2x2(m[1][1], -m[0][1], -m[1][0], m[0][0]) * (1/determinant(m));
+}
+)";
+
+static constexpr char kInverse3x3[] = R"(
+float3x3 float3x3_inverse(float3x3 m) {
+    float a00 = m[0][0], a01 = m[0][1], a02 = m[0][2];
+    float a10 = m[1][0], a11 = m[1][1], a12 = m[1][2];
+    float a20 = m[2][0], a21 = m[2][1], a22 = m[2][2];
+    float b01 =  a22*a11 - a12*a21;
+    float b11 = -a22*a10 + a12*a20;
+    float b21 =  a21*a10 - a11*a20;
+    float det = a00*b01 + a01*b11 + a02*b21;
+    return float3x3(b01, (-a22*a01 + a02*a21), ( a12*a01 - a02*a11),
+                    b11, ( a22*a00 - a02*a20), (-a12*a00 + a02*a10),
+                    b21, (-a21*a00 + a01*a20), ( a11*a00 - a01*a10)) * (1/det);
+}
+)";
+
+static constexpr char kInverse4x4[] = R"(
+float4x4 float4x4_inverse(float4x4 m) {
+    float a00 = m[0][0], a01 = m[0][1], a02 = m[0][2], a03 = m[0][3];
+    float a10 = m[1][0], a11 = m[1][1], a12 = m[1][2], a13 = m[1][3];
+    float a20 = m[2][0], a21 = m[2][1], a22 = m[2][2], a23 = m[2][3];
+    float a30 = m[3][0], a31 = m[3][1], a32 = m[3][2], a33 = m[3][3];
+    float b00 = a00*a11 - a01*a10;
+    float b01 = a00*a12 - a02*a10;
+    float b02 = a00*a13 - a03*a10;
+    float b03 = a01*a12 - a02*a11;
+    float b04 = a01*a13 - a03*a11;
+    float b05 = a02*a13 - a03*a12;
+    float b06 = a20*a31 - a21*a30;
+    float b07 = a20*a32 - a22*a30;
+    float b08 = a20*a33 - a23*a30;
+    float b09 = a21*a32 - a22*a31;
+    float b10 = a21*a33 - a23*a31;
+    float b11 = a22*a33 - a23*a32;
+    float det = b00*b11 - b01*b10 + b02*b09 + b03*b08 - b04*b07 + b05*b06;
+    return float4x4(a11*b11 - a12*b10 + a13*b09,
+                    a02*b10 - a01*b11 - a03*b09,
+                    a31*b05 - a32*b04 + a33*b03,
+                    a22*b04 - a21*b05 - a23*b03,
+                    a12*b08 - a10*b11 - a13*b07,
+                    a00*b11 - a02*b08 + a03*b07,
+                    a32*b02 - a30*b05 - a33*b01,
+                    a20*b05 - a22*b02 + a23*b01,
+                    a10*b10 - a11*b08 + a13*b06,
+                    a01*b08 - a00*b10 - a03*b06,
+                    a30*b04 - a31*b02 + a33*b00,
+                    a21*b02 - a20*b04 - a23*b00,
+                    a11*b07 - a10*b09 - a12*b06,
+                    a00*b09 - a01*b07 + a02*b06,
+                    a31*b01 - a30*b03 - a32*b00,
+                    a20*b03 - a21*b01 + a22*b00) * (1/det);
+}
+)";
+
+String MetalCodeGenerator::getInversePolyfill(const ExpressionArray& arguments) {
+    // Only use polyfills for a function taking a single-argument square matrix.
+    if (arguments.size() == 1) {
+        const Type& type = arguments.front()->type();
+        if (type.isMatrix() && type.rows() == type.columns()) {
+            // Inject the correct polyfill based on the matrix size.
+            String name = this->typeName(type) + "_inverse";
+            auto [iter, didInsert] = fWrittenIntrinsics.insert(name);
+            if (didInsert) {
+                switch (type.rows()) {
+                    case 2:
+                        fExtraFunctions.writeText(kInverse2x2);
+                        break;
+                    case 3:
+                        fExtraFunctions.writeText(kInverse3x3);
+                        break;
+                    case 4:
+                        fExtraFunctions.writeText(kInverse4x4);
+                        break;
+                }
+            }
+            return name;
+        }
+    }
+    // This isn't the built-in `inverse`. We don't want to polyfill it at all.
+    return "inverse";
+}
+
+static constexpr char kMatrixCompMult[] = R"(
+template <int C, int R>
+matrix<float, C, R> matrixCompMult(matrix<float, C, R> a, matrix<float, C, R> b) {
+    matrix<float, C, R> result;
+    for (int c = 0; c < C; ++c) {
+        result[c] = a[c] * b[c];
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+)";
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeMatrixCompMult() {
+    String name = "matrixCompMult";
+    if (fWrittenIntrinsics.find(name) == fWrittenIntrinsics.end()) {
+        fWrittenIntrinsics.insert(name);
+        fExtraFunctions.writeText(kMatrixCompMult);
+    }
+}
+
+String MetalCodeGenerator::getTempVariable(const Type& type) {
+    String tempVar = "_skTemp" + to_string(fVarCount++);
+    this->fFunctionHeader += "    " + this->typeName(type) + " " + tempVar + ";\n";
+    return tempVar;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeSimpleIntrinsic(const FunctionCall& c) {
+    // Write out an intrinsic function call exactly as-is. No muss no fuss.
+    this->write(c.function().name());
+    this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeArgumentList(const ExpressionArray& arguments) {
+    this->write("(");
+    const char* separator = "";
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& arg : arguments) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+        this->writeExpression(*arg, Precedence::kSequence);
+    }
+    this->write(")");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeIntrinsicCall(const FunctionCall& c, IntrinsicKind kind) {
+    const ExpressionArray& arguments = c.arguments();
+    switch (kind) {
+        case kTexture_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(".sample(");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(SAMPLER_SUFFIX);
+            this->write(", ");
+            const Type& arg1Type = arguments[1]->type();
+            if (arg1Type.columns() == 3) {
+                // have to store the vector in a temp variable to avoid double evaluating it
+                String tmpVar = this->getTempVariable(arg1Type);
+                this->write("(" + tmpVar + " = ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(", " + tmpVar + ".xy / " + tmpVar + ".z))");
+            } else {
+                SkASSERT(arg1Type.columns() == 2);
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(")");
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kMod_IntrinsicKind: {
+            // fmod(x, y) in metal calculates x - y * trunc(x / y) instead of x - y * floor(x / y)
+            String tmpX = this->getTempVariable(arguments[0]->type());
+            String tmpY = this->getTempVariable(arguments[1]->type());
+            this->write("(" + tmpX + " = ");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(", " + tmpY + " = ");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(", " + tmpX + " - " + tmpY + " * floor(" + tmpX + " / " + tmpY + "))");
+            break;
+        }
+        // GLSL declares scalar versions of most geometric intrinsics, but these don't exist in MSL
+        case kDistance_IntrinsicKind: {
+            if (arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1) {
+                this->write("abs(");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kAdditive);
+                this->write(" - ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kAdditive);
+                this->write(")");
+            } else {
+                this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kDot_IntrinsicKind: {
+            if (arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1) {
+                this->write("(");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kMultiplicative);
+                this->write(" * ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kMultiplicative);
+                this->write(")");
+            } else {
+                this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kFaceforward_IntrinsicKind: {
+            if (arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1) {
+                // ((((Nref) * (I) < 0) ? 1 : -1) * (N))
+                this->write("((((");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[2], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(") * (");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(") < 0) ? 1 : -1) * (");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write("))");
+            } else {
+                this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kLength_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write(arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1 ? "abs(" : "length(");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(")");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kNormalize_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write(arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1 ? "sign(" : "normalize(");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(")");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kBitcast_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write(this->getBitcastIntrinsic(c.type()));
+            this->write("(");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(")");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kDegrees_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("((");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(") * 57.2957795)");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kRadians_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("((");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(") * 0.0174532925)");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kDFdx_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("dfdx");
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kDFdy_IntrinsicKind: {
+            // Flipping Y also negates the Y derivatives.
+            if (fProgram.fConfig->fSettings.fFlipY) {
+                this->write("-");
+            }
+            this->write("dfdy");
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kInverse_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write(this->getInversePolyfill(arguments));
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kInversesqrt_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("rsqrt");
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kAtan_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write(c.arguments().size() == 2 ? "atan2" : "atan");
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kReflect_IntrinsicKind: {
+            if (arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1) {
+                // We need to synthesize `I - 2 * N * I * N`.
+                String tmpI = this->getTempVariable(arguments[0]->type());
+                String tmpN = this->getTempVariable(arguments[1]->type());
+
+                // (_skTempI = ...
+                this->write("(" + tmpI + " = ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+
+                // , _skTempN = ...
+                this->write(", " + tmpN + " = ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+
+                // , _skTempI - 2 * _skTempN * _skTempI * _skTempN)
+                this->write(", " + tmpI + " - 2 * " + tmpN + " * " + tmpI + " * " + tmpN + ")");
+            } else {
+                this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kRefract_IntrinsicKind: {
+            if (arguments[0]->type().columns() == 1) {
+                // Metal does implement refract for vectors; rather than reimplementing refract from
+                // scratch, we can replace the call with `refract(float2(I,0), float2(N,0), eta).x`.
+                this->write("(refract(float2(");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(", 0), float2(");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[1], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(", 0), ");
+                this->writeExpression(*arguments[2], Precedence::kSequence);
+                this->write(").x)");
+            } else {
+                this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case kRoundEven_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("rint");
+            this->writeArgumentList(c.arguments());
+            break;
+        }
+        case kBitCount_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("popcount(");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write(")");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kFindLSB_IntrinsicKind: {
+            // Create a temp variable to store the expression, to avoid double-evaluating it.
+            String skTemp = this->getTempVariable(arguments[0]->type());
+            String exprType = this->typeName(arguments[0]->type());
+
+            // ctz returns numbits(type) on zero inputs; GLSL documents it as generating -1 instead.
+            // Use select to detect zero inputs and force a -1 result.
+
+            // (_skTemp1 = (.....), select(ctz(_skTemp1), int4(-1), _skTemp1 == int4(0)))
+            this->write("(");
+            this->write(skTemp);
+            this->write(" = (");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write("), select(ctz(");
+            this->write(skTemp);
+            this->write("), ");
+            this->write(exprType);
+            this->write("(-1), ");
+            this->write(skTemp);
+            this->write(" == ");
+            this->write(exprType);
+            this->write("(0)))");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kFindMSB_IntrinsicKind: {
+            // Create a temp variable to store the expression, to avoid double-evaluating it.
+            String skTemp1 = this->getTempVariable(arguments[0]->type());
+            String exprType = this->typeName(arguments[0]->type());
+
+            // GLSL findMSB is actually quite different from Metal's clz:
+            // - For signed negative numbers, it returns the first zero bit, not the first one bit!
+            // - For an empty input (0/~0 depending on sign), findMSB gives -1; clz is numbits(type)
+
+            // (_skTemp1 = (.....),
+            this->write("(");
+            this->write(skTemp1);
+            this->write(" = (");
+            this->writeExpression(*arguments[0], Precedence::kSequence);
+            this->write("), ");
+
+            // Signed input types might be negative; we need another helper variable to negate the
+            // input (since we can only find one bits, not zero bits).
+            String skTemp2;
+            if (arguments[0]->type().isSigned()) {
+                // ... _skTemp2 = (select(_skTemp1, ~_skTemp1, _skTemp1 < 0)),
+                skTemp2 = this->getTempVariable(arguments[0]->type());
+                this->write(skTemp2);
+                this->write(" = (select(");
+                this->write(skTemp1);
+                this->write(", ~");
+                this->write(skTemp1);
+                this->write(", ");
+                this->write(skTemp1);
+                this->write(" < 0)), ");
+            } else {
+                skTemp2 = skTemp1;
+            }
+
+            // ... select(int4(clz(_skTemp2)), int4(-1), _skTemp2 == int4(0)))
+            this->write("select(");
+            this->write(this->typeName(c.type()));
+            this->write("(clz(");
+            this->write(skTemp2);
+            this->write(")), ");
+            this->write(this->typeName(c.type()));
+            this->write("(-1), ");
+            this->write(skTemp2);
+            this->write(" == ");
+            this->write(exprType);
+            this->write("(0)))");
+            break;
+        }
+        case kMatrixCompMult_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->writeMatrixCompMult();
+            this->writeSimpleIntrinsic(c);
+            break;
+        }
+        case kCompareEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+        case kCompareGreaterThan_IntrinsicKind:
+        case kCompareGreaterThanEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+        case kCompareLessThan_IntrinsicKind:
+        case kCompareLessThanEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+        case kCompareNotEqual_IntrinsicKind: {
+            this->write("(");
+            this->writeExpression(*c.arguments()[0], Precedence::kRelational);
+            switch (kind) {
+                case kCompareEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" == ");
+                    break;
+                case kCompareNotEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" != ");
+                    break;
+                case kCompareLessThan_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" < ");
+                    break;
+                case kCompareLessThanEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" <= ");
+                    break;
+                case kCompareGreaterThan_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" > ");
+                    break;
+                case kCompareGreaterThanEqual_IntrinsicKind:
+                    this->write(" >= ");
+                    break;
+                default:
+                    SK_ABORT("unsupported comparison intrinsic kind");
+            }
+            this->writeExpression(*c.arguments()[1], Precedence::kRelational);
+            this->write(")");
+            break;
+        }
+        default:
+            SK_ABORT("unsupported intrinsic kind");
+    }
+}
+
+// Assembles a matrix of type floatRxC by resizing another matrix named `x0`.
+// Cells that don't exist in the source matrix will be populated with identity-matrix values.
+void MetalCodeGenerator::assembleMatrixFromMatrix(const Type& sourceMatrix, int rows, int columns) {
+    SkASSERT(rows <= 4);
+    SkASSERT(columns <= 4);
+
+    const char* columnSeparator = "";
+    for (int c = 0; c < columns; ++c) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf("%sfloat%d(", columnSeparator, rows);
+        columnSeparator = "), ";
+
+        // Determine how many values to take from the source matrix for this row.
+        int swizzleLength = 0;
+        if (c < sourceMatrix.columns()) {
+            swizzleLength = std::min<>(rows, sourceMatrix.rows());
+        }
+
+        // Emit all the values from the source matrix row.
+        bool firstItem;
+        switch (swizzleLength) {
+            case 0:  firstItem = true;                                            break;
+            case 1:  firstItem = false; fExtraFunctions.printf("x0[%d].x", c);    break;
+            case 2:  firstItem = false; fExtraFunctions.printf("x0[%d].xy", c);   break;
+            case 3:  firstItem = false; fExtraFunctions.printf("x0[%d].xyz", c);  break;
+            case 4:  firstItem = false; fExtraFunctions.printf("x0[%d].xyzw", c); break;
+            default: SkUNREACHABLE;
+        }
+
+        // Emit the placeholder identity-matrix cells.
+        for (int r = swizzleLength; r < rows; ++r) {
+            fExtraFunctions.printf("%s%s", firstItem ? "" : ", ", (r == c) ? "1.0" : "0.0");
+            firstItem = false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    fExtraFunctions.writeText(")");
+}
+
+// Assembles a matrix of type floatRxC by concatenating an arbitrary mix of values, named `x0`,
+// `x1`, etc. An error is written if the expression list don't contain exactly R*C scalars.
+void MetalCodeGenerator::assembleMatrixFromExpressions(const AnyConstructor& ctor,
+                                                       int rows, int columns) {
+    size_t argIndex = 0;
+    int argPosition = 0;
+    auto args = ctor.argumentSpan();
+
+    const char* columnSeparator = "";
+    for (int c = 0; c < columns; ++c) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf("%sfloat%d(", columnSeparator, rows);
+        columnSeparator = "), ";
+
+        const char* rowSeparator = "";
+        for (int r = 0; r < rows; ++r) {
+            fExtraFunctions.writeText(rowSeparator);
+            rowSeparator = ", ";
+
+            if (argIndex < args.size()) {
+                const Type& argType = args[argIndex]->type();
+                switch (argType.typeKind()) {
+                    case Type::TypeKind::kScalar: {
+                        fExtraFunctions.printf("x%zu", argIndex);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    case Type::TypeKind::kVector: {
+                        fExtraFunctions.printf("x%zu[%d]", argIndex, argPosition);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    case Type::TypeKind::kMatrix: {
+                        fExtraFunctions.printf("x%zu[%d][%d]", argIndex,
+                                               argPosition / argType.rows(),
+                                               argPosition % argType.rows());
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    default: {
+                        SkDEBUGFAIL("incorrect type of argument for matrix constructor");
+                        fExtraFunctions.writeText("<error>");
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                ++argPosition;
+                if (argPosition >= argType.columns() * argType.rows()) {
+                    ++argIndex;
+                    argPosition = 0;
+                }
+            } else {
+                SkDEBUGFAIL("not enough arguments for matrix constructor");
+                fExtraFunctions.writeText("<error>");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (argPosition != 0 || argIndex != args.size()) {
+        SkDEBUGFAIL("incorrect number of arguments for matrix constructor");
+        fExtraFunctions.writeText(", <error>");
+    }
+
+    fExtraFunctions.writeText(")");
+}
+
+// Generates a constructor for 'matrix' which reorganizes the input arguments into the proper shape.
+// Keeps track of previously generated constructors so that we won't generate more than one
+// constructor for any given permutation of input argument types. Returns the name of the
+// generated constructor method.
+String MetalCodeGenerator::getMatrixConstructHelper(const AnyConstructor& c) {
+    const Type& matrix = c.type();
+    int columns = matrix.columns();
+    int rows = matrix.rows();
+    auto args = c.argumentSpan();
+
+    // Create the helper-method name and use it as our lookup key.
+    String name;
+    name.appendf("float%dx%d_from", columns, rows);
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& expr : args) {
+        name.appendf("_%s", this->typeName(expr->type()).c_str());
+    }
+
+    // If a helper-method has already been synthesized, we don't need to synthesize it again.
+    auto [iter, newlyCreated] = fHelpers.insert(name);
+    if (!newlyCreated) {
+        return name;
+    }
+
+    // Unlike GLSL, Metal requires that matrices are initialized with exactly R vectors of C
+    // components apiece. (In Metal 2.0, you can also supply R*C scalars, but you still cannot
+    // supply a mixture of scalars and vectors.)
+    fExtraFunctions.printf("float%dx%d %s(", columns, rows, name.c_str());
+
+    size_t argIndex = 0;
+    const char* argSeparator = "";
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& expr : args) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf("%s%s x%zu", argSeparator,
+                               this->typeName(expr->type()).c_str(), argIndex++);
+        argSeparator = ", ";
+    }
+
+    fExtraFunctions.printf(") {\n    return float%dx%d(", columns, rows);
+
+    if (args.size() == 1 && args.front()->type().isMatrix()) {
+        this->assembleMatrixFromMatrix(args.front()->type(), rows, columns);
+    } else {
+        this->assembleMatrixFromExpressions(c, rows, columns);
+    }
+
+    fExtraFunctions.writeText(");\n}\n");
+    return name;
+}
+
+bool MetalCodeGenerator::canCoerce(const Type& t1, const Type& t2) {
+    if (t1.columns() != t2.columns() || t1.rows() != t2.rows()) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    if (t1.columns() > 1) {
+        return this->canCoerce(t1.componentType(), t2.componentType());
+    }
+    return t1.isFloat() && t2.isFloat();
+}
+
+bool MetalCodeGenerator::matrixConstructHelperIsNeeded(const ConstructorCompound& c) {
+    SkASSERT(c.type().isMatrix());
+
+    // GLSL is fairly free-form about inputs to its matrix constructors, but Metal is not; it
+    // expects exactly R vectors of C components apiece. (Metal 2.0 also allows a list of R*C
+    // scalars.) Some cases are simple to translate and so we handle those inline--e.g. a list of
+    // scalars can be constructed trivially. In more complex cases, we generate a helper function
+    // that converts our inputs into a properly-shaped matrix.
+    // A matrix construct helper method is always used if any input argument is a matrix.
+    // Helper methods are also necessary when any argument would span multiple rows. For instance:
+    //
+    // float2 x = (1, 2);
+    // float3x2(x, 3, 4, 5, 6) = | 1 3 5 | = no helper needed; conversion can be done inline
+    //                           | 2 4 6 |
+    //
+    // float2 x = (2, 3);
+    // float3x2(1, x, 4, 5, 6) = | 1 3 5 | = x spans multiple rows; a helper method will be used
+    //                           | 2 4 6 |
+    //
+    // float4 x = (1, 2, 3, 4);
+    // float2x2(x) = | 1 3 | = x spans multiple rows; a helper method will be used
+    //               | 2 4 |
+    //
+
+    int position = 0;
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& expr : c.arguments()) {
+        // If an input argument is a matrix, we need a helper function.
+        if (expr->type().isMatrix()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        position += expr->type().columns();
+        if (position > c.type().rows()) {
+            // An input argument would span multiple rows; a helper function is required.
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (position == c.type().rows()) {
+            // We've advanced to the end of a row. Wrap to the start of the next row.
+            position = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return false;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeConstructorMatrixResize(const ConstructorMatrixResize& c,
+                                                      Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    // Matrix-resize via casting doesn't natively exist in Metal at all, so we always need to use a
+    // matrix-construct helper here.
+    this->write(this->getMatrixConstructHelper(c));
+    this->write("(");
+    this->writeExpression(*c.argument(), Precedence::kSequence);
+    this->write(")");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeConstructorCompound(const ConstructorCompound& c,
+                                                  Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    if (c.type().isMatrix()) {
+        this->writeConstructorCompoundMatrix(c, parentPrecedence);
+    } else {
+        this->writeAnyConstructor(c, "(", ")", parentPrecedence);
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeConstructorCompoundMatrix(const ConstructorCompound& c,
+                                                        Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    // Emit and invoke a matrix-constructor helper method if one is necessary.
+    if (this->matrixConstructHelperIsNeeded(c)) {
+        this->write(this->getMatrixConstructHelper(c));
+        this->write("(");
+        const char* separator = "";
+        for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& expr : c.arguments()) {
+            this->write(separator);
+            separator = ", ";
+            this->writeExpression(*expr, Precedence::kSequence);
+        }
+        this->write(")");
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // Metal doesn't allow creating matrices by passing in scalars and vectors in a jumble; it
+    // requires your scalars to be grouped up into columns. Because `matrixConstructHelperIsNeeded`
+    // returned false, we know that none of our scalars/vectors "wrap" across across a column, so we
+    // can group our inputs up and synthesize a constructor for each column.
+    const Type& matrixType = c.type();
+    const Type& columnType = matrixType.componentType().toCompound(
+            fContext, /*columns=*/matrixType.rows(), /*rows=*/1);
+
+    this->writeType(matrixType);
+    this->write("(");
+    const char* separator = "";
+    int scalarCount = 0;
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& arg : c.arguments()) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+        if (arg->type().columns() < matrixType.rows()) {
+            // Write a `floatN(` constructor to group scalars and smaller vectors together.
+            if (!scalarCount) {
+                this->writeType(columnType);
+                this->write("(");
+            }
+            scalarCount += arg->type().columns();
+        }
+        this->writeExpression(*arg, Precedence::kSequence);
+        if (scalarCount && scalarCount == matrixType.rows()) {
+            // Close our `floatN(...` constructor block from above.
+            this->write(")");
+            scalarCount = 0;
+        }
+    }
+    this->write(")");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeAnyConstructor(const AnyConstructor& c,
+                                             const char* leftBracket,
+                                             const char* rightBracket,
+                                             Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    this->writeType(c.type());
+    this->write(leftBracket);
+    const char* separator = "";
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Expression>& arg : c.argumentSpan()) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+        this->writeExpression(*arg, Precedence::kSequence);
+    }
+    this->write(rightBracket);
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeCastConstructor(const AnyConstructor& c,
+                                              const char* leftBracket,
+                                              const char* rightBracket,
+                                              Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    // If the type is coercible, emit it directly without the cast.
+    auto args = c.argumentSpan();
+    if (args.size() == 1) {
+        if (this->canCoerce(c.type(), args.front()->type())) {
+            this->writeExpression(*args.front(), parentPrecedence);
+            return;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return this->writeAnyConstructor(c, leftBracket, rightBracket, parentPrecedence);
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFragCoord() {
+    if (fRTHeightName.length()) {
+        this->write("float4(_fragCoord.x, ");
+        this->write(fRTHeightName.c_str());
+        this->write(" - _fragCoord.y, 0.0, _fragCoord.w)");
+    } else {
+        this->write("float4(_fragCoord.x, _fragCoord.y, 0.0, _fragCoord.w)");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeVariableReference(const VariableReference& ref) {
+    // When assembling out-param helper functions, we copy variables into local clones with matching
+    // names. We never want to prepend "_in." or "_globals." when writing these variables since
+    // we're actually targeting the clones.
+    if (fIgnoreVariableReferenceModifiers) {
+        this->writeName(ref.variable()->name());
+        return;
+    }
+
+    switch (ref.variable()->modifiers().fLayout.fBuiltin) {
+        case SK_FRAGCOLOR_BUILTIN:
+            this->write("_out.sk_FragColor");
+            break;
+        case SK_FRAGCOORD_BUILTIN:
+            this->writeFragCoord();
+            break;
+        case SK_VERTEXID_BUILTIN:
+            this->write("sk_VertexID");
+            break;
+        case SK_INSTANCEID_BUILTIN:
+            this->write("sk_InstanceID");
+            break;
+        case SK_CLOCKWISE_BUILTIN:
+            // We'd set the front facing winding in the MTLRenderCommandEncoder to be counter
+            // clockwise to match Skia convention.
+            this->write(fProgram.fConfig->fSettings.fFlipY ? "_frontFacing" : "(!_frontFacing)");
+            break;
+        default:
+            const Variable& var = *ref.variable();
+            if (var.storage() == Variable::Storage::kGlobal) {
+                if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kIn_Flag) {
+                    this->write("_in.");
+                } else if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+                    this->write("_out.");
+                } else if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kUniform_Flag &&
+                           var.type().typeKind() != Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+                    this->write("_uniforms.");
+                } else {
+                    this->write("_globals.");
+                }
+            }
+            this->writeName(var.name());
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeIndexExpression(const IndexExpression& expr) {
+    this->writeExpression(*expr.base(), Precedence::kPostfix);
+    this->write("[");
+    this->writeExpression(*expr.index(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    this->write("]");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFieldAccess(const FieldAccess& f) {
+    const Type::Field* field = &f.base()->type().fields()[f.fieldIndex()];
+    if (FieldAccess::OwnerKind::kDefault == f.ownerKind()) {
+        this->writeExpression(*f.base(), Precedence::kPostfix);
+        this->write(".");
+    }
+    switch (field->fModifiers.fLayout.fBuiltin) {
+        case SK_POSITION_BUILTIN:
+            this->write("_out.sk_Position");
+            break;
+        default:
+            if (field->fName == "sk_PointSize") {
+                this->write("_out.sk_PointSize");
+            } else {
+                if (FieldAccess::OwnerKind::kAnonymousInterfaceBlock == f.ownerKind()) {
+                    this->write("_globals.");
+                    this->write(fInterfaceBlockNameMap[fInterfaceBlockMap[field]]);
+                    this->write("->");
+                }
+                this->writeName(field->fName);
+            }
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeSwizzle(const Swizzle& swizzle) {
+    this->writeExpression(*swizzle.base(), Precedence::kPostfix);
+    this->write(".");
+    for (int c : swizzle.components()) {
+        SkASSERT(c >= 0 && c <= 3);
+        this->write(&("x\0y\0z\0w\0"[c * 2]));
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeMatrixTimesEqualHelper(const Type& left, const Type& right,
+                                                     const Type& result) {
+    String key = "TimesEqual" + this->typeName(left) + ":" + this->typeName(right);
+
+    auto [iter, wasInserted] = fHelpers.insert(key);
+    if (wasInserted) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf("thread %s& operator*=(thread %s& left, thread const %s& right) {\n"
+                               "    left = left * right;\n"
+                               "    return left;\n"
+                               "}\n",
+                               this->typeName(result).c_str(), this->typeName(left).c_str(),
+                               this->typeName(right).c_str());
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeMatrixEqualityHelper(const Type& left, const Type& right) {
+    SkASSERTF(left.rows() == right.rows() && left.columns() == right.columns(), "left=%s, right=%s",
+              left.description().c_str(), right.description().c_str());
+
+    String key = "Equality" + this->typeName(left) + ":" + this->typeName(right);
+
+    auto [iter, wasInserted] = fHelpers.insert(key);
+    if (wasInserted) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf(
+                "thread bool operator==(const %s left, const %s right) {\n"
+                "    return",
+                this->typeName(left).c_str(), this->typeName(right).c_str());
+
+        for (int index=0; index<left.columns(); ++index) {
+            fExtraFunctions.printf("%s all(left[%d] == right[%d])",
+                                   index == 0 ? "" : " &&", index, index);
+        }
+        fExtraFunctions.printf(";\n"
+                               "}\n");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeMatrixInequalityHelper(const Type& left, const Type& right) {
+    SkASSERTF(left.rows() == right.rows() && left.columns() == right.columns(), "left=%s, right=%s",
+              left.description().c_str(), right.description().c_str());
+
+    String key = "Inequality" + this->typeName(left) + ":" + this->typeName(right);
+
+    auto [iter, wasInserted] = fHelpers.insert(key);
+    if (wasInserted) {
+        fExtraFunctions.printf(
+                "thread bool operator!=(const %s left, const %s right) {\n"
+                "    return",
+                this->typeName(left).c_str(), this->typeName(right).c_str());
+
+        for (int index=0; index<left.columns(); ++index) {
+            fExtraFunctions.printf("%s any(left[%d] != right[%d])",
+                                   index == 0 ? "" : " ||", index, index);
+        }
+        fExtraFunctions.printf(";\n"
+                               "}\n");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeBinaryExpression(const BinaryExpression& b,
+                                               Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    const Expression& left = *b.left();
+    const Expression& right = *b.right();
+    const Type& leftType = left.type();
+    const Type& rightType = right.type();
+    Operator op = b.getOperator();
+    Precedence precedence = op.getBinaryPrecedence();
+    bool needParens = precedence >= parentPrecedence;
+    switch (op.kind()) {
+        case Token::Kind::TK_EQEQ:
+            if (leftType.isVector()) {
+                this->write("all");
+                needParens = true;
+            }
+            break;
+        case Token::Kind::TK_NEQ:
+            if (leftType.isVector()) {
+                this->write("any");
+                needParens = true;
+            }
+            break;
+        default:
+            break;
+    }
+    if (needParens) {
+        this->write("(");
+    }
+    if (leftType.isMatrix() && rightType.isMatrix()) {
+        if (op.kind() == Token::Kind::TK_STAREQ) {
+            this->writeMatrixTimesEqualHelper(leftType, rightType, b.type());
+        } else if (op.kind() == Token::Kind::TK_EQEQ) {
+            this->writeMatrixEqualityHelper(leftType, rightType);
+        } else if (op.kind() == Token::Kind::TK_NEQ) {
+            this->writeMatrixInequalityHelper(leftType, rightType);
+        }
+    }
+    this->writeExpression(left, precedence);
+    if (op.kind() != Token::Kind::TK_EQ && op.isAssignment() &&
+        left.kind() == Expression::Kind::kSwizzle && !left.hasSideEffects()) {
+        // This doesn't compile in Metal:
+        // float4 x = float4(1);
+        // x.xy *= float2x2(...);
+        // with the error message "non-const reference cannot bind to vector element",
+        // but switching it to x.xy = x.xy * float2x2(...) fixes it. We perform this tranformation
+        // as long as the LHS has no side effects, and hope for the best otherwise.
+        this->write(" = ");
+        this->writeExpression(left, Precedence::kAssignment);
+        this->write(" ");
+        String opName = OperatorName(op);
+        SkASSERT(opName.endsWith("="));
+        this->write(opName.substr(0, opName.size() - 1).c_str());
+        this->write(" ");
+    } else {
+        this->write(String(" ") + OperatorName(op) + " ");
+    }
+    this->writeExpression(right, precedence);
+    if (needParens) {
+        this->write(")");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeTernaryExpression(const TernaryExpression& t,
+                                               Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    if (Precedence::kTernary >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write("(");
+    }
+    this->writeExpression(*t.test(), Precedence::kTernary);
+    this->write(" ? ");
+    this->writeExpression(*t.ifTrue(), Precedence::kTernary);
+    this->write(" : ");
+    this->writeExpression(*t.ifFalse(), Precedence::kTernary);
+    if (Precedence::kTernary >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write(")");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writePrefixExpression(const PrefixExpression& p,
+                                              Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    if (Precedence::kPrefix >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write("(");
+    }
+    this->write(OperatorName(p.getOperator()));
+    this->writeExpression(*p.operand(), Precedence::kPrefix);
+    if (Precedence::kPrefix >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write(")");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writePostfixExpression(const PostfixExpression& p,
+                                               Precedence parentPrecedence) {
+    if (Precedence::kPostfix >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write("(");
+    }
+    this->writeExpression(*p.operand(), Precedence::kPostfix);
+    this->write(OperatorName(p.getOperator()));
+    if (Precedence::kPostfix >= parentPrecedence) {
+        this->write(")");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeBoolLiteral(const BoolLiteral& b) {
+    this->write(b.value() ? "true" : "false");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeIntLiteral(const IntLiteral& i) {
+    const Type& type = i.type();
+    if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fUInt) {
+        this->write(to_string(i.value() & 0xffffffff) + "u");
+    } else if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fUShort) {
+        this->write(to_string(i.value() & 0xffff) + "u");
+    } else if (type == *fContext.fTypes.fUByte) {
+        this->write(to_string(i.value() & 0xff) + "u");
+    } else {
+        this->write(to_string(i.value()));
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFloatLiteral(const FloatLiteral& f) {
+    this->write(to_string(f.value()));
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeSetting(const Setting& s) {
+    SK_ABORT("internal error; setting was not folded to a constant during compilation\n");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunctionRequirementArgs(const FunctionDeclaration& f,
+                                                      const char*& separator) {
+    Requirements requirements = this->requirements(f);
+    if (requirements & kInputs_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("_in");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kOutputs_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("_out");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kUniforms_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("_uniforms");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kGlobals_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("_globals");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kFragCoord_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("_fragCoord");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunctionRequirementParams(const FunctionDeclaration& f,
+                                                        const char*& separator) {
+    Requirements requirements = this->requirements(f);
+    if (requirements & kInputs_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("Inputs _in");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kOutputs_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("thread Outputs& _out");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kUniforms_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("Uniforms _uniforms");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kGlobals_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("thread Globals& _globals");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+    if (requirements & kFragCoord_Requirement) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        this->write("float4 _fragCoord");
+        separator = ", ";
+    }
+}
+
+int MetalCodeGenerator::getUniformBinding(const Modifiers& m) {
+    return (m.fLayout.fBinding >= 0) ? m.fLayout.fBinding
+                                     : fProgram.fConfig->fSettings.fDefaultUniformBinding;
+}
+
+int MetalCodeGenerator::getUniformSet(const Modifiers& m) {
+    return (m.fLayout.fSet >= 0) ? m.fLayout.fSet
+                                 : fProgram.fConfig->fSettings.fDefaultUniformSet;
+}
+
+bool MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunctionDeclaration(const FunctionDeclaration& f) {
+    fRTHeightName = fProgram.fInputs.fRTHeight ? "_globals._anonInterface0->u_skRTHeight" : "";
+    const char* separator = "";
+    if (f.isMain()) {
+        switch (fProgram.fConfig->fKind) {
+            case ProgramKind::kFragment:
+                this->write("fragment Outputs fragmentMain");
+                break;
+            case ProgramKind::kVertex:
+                this->write("vertex Outputs vertexMain");
+                break;
+            default:
+                fErrors.error(-1, "unsupported kind of program");
+                return false;
+        }
+        this->write("(Inputs _in [[stage_in]]");
+        if (-1 != fUniformBuffer) {
+            this->write(", constant Uniforms& _uniforms [[buffer(" +
+                        to_string(fUniformBuffer) + ")]]");
+        }
+        for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+            if (e->is<GlobalVarDeclaration>()) {
+                const GlobalVarDeclaration& decls = e->as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+                const VarDeclaration& var = decls.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>();
+                if (var.var().type().typeKind() == Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+                    if (var.var().modifiers().fLayout.fBinding < 0) {
+                        fErrors.error(decls.fOffset,
+                                      "Metal samplers must have 'layout(binding=...)'");
+                        return false;
+                    }
+                    if (var.var().type().dimensions() != SpvDim2D) {
+                        // Not yet implemented--Skia currently only uses 2D textures.
+                        fErrors.error(decls.fOffset, "Unsupported texture dimensions");
+                        return false;
+                    }
+                    this->write(", texture2d<float> ");
+                    this->writeName(var.var().name());
+                    this->write("[[texture(");
+                    this->write(to_string(var.var().modifiers().fLayout.fBinding));
+                    this->write(")]]");
+                    this->write(", sampler ");
+                    this->writeName(var.var().name());
+                    this->write(SAMPLER_SUFFIX);
+                    this->write("[[sampler(");
+                    this->write(to_string(var.var().modifiers().fLayout.fBinding));
+                    this->write(")]]");
+                }
+            } else if (e->is<InterfaceBlock>()) {
+                const InterfaceBlock& intf = e->as<InterfaceBlock>();
+                if (intf.typeName() == "sk_PerVertex") {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                this->write(", constant ");
+                this->writeType(intf.variable().type());
+                this->write("& " );
+                this->write(fInterfaceBlockNameMap[&intf]);
+                this->write(" [[buffer(");
+                this->write(to_string(this->getUniformBinding(intf.variable().modifiers())));
+                this->write(")]]");
+            }
+        }
+        if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kFragment) {
+            if (fProgram.fInputs.fRTHeight && fInterfaceBlockNameMap.empty()) {
+                this->write(", constant sksl_synthetic_uniforms& _anonInterface0 [[buffer(1)]]");
+                fRTHeightName = "_anonInterface0.u_skRTHeight";
+            }
+            this->write(", bool _frontFacing [[front_facing]]");
+            this->write(", float4 _fragCoord [[position]]");
+        } else if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kVertex) {
+            this->write(", uint sk_VertexID [[vertex_id]], uint sk_InstanceID [[instance_id]]");
+        }
+        separator = ", ";
+    } else {
+        this->writeType(f.returnType());
+        this->write(" ");
+        this->writeName(f.mangledName());
+        this->write("(");
+        this->writeFunctionRequirementParams(f, separator);
+    }
+    for (const auto& param : f.parameters()) {
+        this->write(separator);
+        separator = ", ";
+        this->writeModifiers(param->modifiers(), /*globalContext=*/false);
+        const Type* type = &param->type();
+        this->writeType(*type);
+        if (param->modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+            this->write("&");
+        }
+        this->write(" ");
+        this->writeName(param->name());
+    }
+    this->write(")");
+    return true;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunctionPrototype(const FunctionPrototype& f) {
+    this->writeFunctionDeclaration(f.declaration());
+    this->writeLine(";");
+}
+
+static bool is_block_ending_with_return(const Statement* stmt) {
+    // This function detects (potentially nested) blocks that end in a return statement.
+    if (!stmt->is<Block>()) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    const StatementArray& block = stmt->as<Block>().children();
+    for (int index = block.count(); index--; ) {
+        const Statement& stmt = *block[index];
+        if (stmt.is<ReturnStatement>()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (stmt.is<Block>()) {
+            return is_block_ending_with_return(&stmt);
+        }
+        if (!stmt.is<Nop>()) {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    return false;
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFunction(const FunctionDefinition& f) {
+    SkASSERT(!fProgram.fConfig->fSettings.fFragColorIsInOut);
+
+    if (!this->writeFunctionDeclaration(f.declaration())) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    fCurrentFunction = &f.declaration();
+    SkScopeExit clearCurrentFunction([&] { fCurrentFunction = nullptr; });
+
+    this->writeLine(" {");
+
+    if (f.declaration().isMain()) {
+        this->writeGlobalInit();
+        this->writeLine("    Outputs _out;");
+        this->writeLine("    (void)_out;");
+    }
+
+    fFunctionHeader = "";
+    StringStream buffer;
+    {
+        AutoOutputStream outputToBuffer(this, &buffer);
+        fIndentation++;
+        for (const std::unique_ptr<Statement>& stmt : f.body()->as<Block>().children()) {
+            if (!stmt->isEmpty()) {
+                this->writeStatement(*stmt);
+                this->finishLine();
+            }
+        }
+        if (f.declaration().isMain()) {
+            // If the main function doesn't end with a return, we need to synthesize one here.
+            if (!is_block_ending_with_return(f.body().get())) {
+                this->writeReturnStatementFromMain();
+                this->finishLine();
+            }
+        }
+        fIndentation--;
+        this->writeLine("}");
+    }
+    this->write(fFunctionHeader);
+    this->write(buffer.str());
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeModifiers(const Modifiers& modifiers,
+                                        bool globalContext) {
+    if (modifiers.fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+        this->write("thread ");
+    }
+    if (modifiers.fFlags & Modifiers::kConst_Flag) {
+        this->write("const ");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeInterfaceBlock(const InterfaceBlock& intf) {
+    if ("sk_PerVertex" == intf.typeName()) {
+        return;
+    }
+    this->writeModifiers(intf.variable().modifiers(), /*globalContext=*/true);
+    this->write("struct ");
+    this->writeLine(intf.typeName() + " {");
+    const Type* structType = &intf.variable().type();
+    if (structType->isArray()) {
+        structType = &structType->componentType();
+    }
+    fIndentation++;
+    this->writeFields(structType->fields(), structType->fOffset, &intf);
+    if (fProgram.fInputs.fRTHeight) {
+        this->writeLine("float u_skRTHeight;");
+    }
+    fIndentation--;
+    this->write("}");
+    if (intf.instanceName().size()) {
+        this->write(" ");
+        this->write(intf.instanceName());
+        if (intf.arraySize() > 0) {
+            this->write("[");
+            this->write(to_string(intf.arraySize()));
+            this->write("]");
+        } else if (intf.arraySize() == Type::kUnsizedArray){
+            this->write("[]");
+        }
+        fInterfaceBlockNameMap[&intf] = intf.instanceName();
+    } else {
+        fInterfaceBlockNameMap[&intf] = "_anonInterface" +  to_string(fAnonInterfaceCount++);
+    }
+    this->writeLine(";");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeFields(const std::vector<Type::Field>& fields, int parentOffset,
+                                     const InterfaceBlock* parentIntf) {
+    MemoryLayout memoryLayout(MemoryLayout::kMetal_Standard);
+    int currentOffset = 0;
+    for (const auto& field: fields) {
+        int fieldOffset = field.fModifiers.fLayout.fOffset;
+        const Type* fieldType = field.fType;
+        if (!MemoryLayout::LayoutIsSupported(*fieldType)) {
+            fErrors.error(parentOffset, "type '" + fieldType->name() + "' is not permitted here");
+            return;
+        }
+        if (fieldOffset != -1) {
+            if (currentOffset > fieldOffset) {
+                fErrors.error(parentOffset,
+                              "offset of field '" + field.fName + "' must be at least " +
+                              to_string((int) currentOffset));
+                return;
+            } else if (currentOffset < fieldOffset) {
+                this->write("char pad");
+                this->write(to_string(fPaddingCount++));
+                this->write("[");
+                this->write(to_string(fieldOffset - currentOffset));
+                this->writeLine("];");
+                currentOffset = fieldOffset;
+            }
+            int alignment = memoryLayout.alignment(*fieldType);
+            if (fieldOffset % alignment) {
+                fErrors.error(parentOffset,
+                              "offset of field '" + field.fName + "' must be a multiple of " +
+                              to_string((int) alignment));
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+        size_t fieldSize = memoryLayout.size(*fieldType);
+        if (fieldSize > static_cast<size_t>(std::numeric_limits<int>::max() - currentOffset)) {
+            fErrors.error(parentOffset, "field offset overflow");
+            return;
+        }
+        currentOffset += fieldSize;
+        this->writeModifiers(field.fModifiers, /*globalContext=*/false);
+        this->writeType(*fieldType);
+        this->write(" ");
+        this->writeName(field.fName);
+        this->writeLine(";");
+        if (parentIntf) {
+            fInterfaceBlockMap[&field] = parentIntf;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeVarInitializer(const Variable& var, const Expression& value) {
+    this->writeExpression(value, Precedence::kTopLevel);
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeName(const String& name) {
+    if (fReservedWords.find(name) != fReservedWords.end()) {
+        this->write("_"); // adding underscore before name to avoid conflict with reserved words
+    }
+    this->write(name);
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeVarDeclaration(const VarDeclaration& varDecl, bool global) {
+    if (global && !(varDecl.var().modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kConst_Flag)) {
+        return;
+    }
+    this->writeModifiers(varDecl.var().modifiers(), global);
+    this->writeType(varDecl.var().type());
+    this->write(" ");
+    this->writeName(varDecl.var().name());
+    if (varDecl.value()) {
+        this->write(" = ");
+        this->writeVarInitializer(varDecl.var(), *varDecl.value());
+    }
+    this->write(";");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeStatement(const Statement& s) {
+    switch (s.kind()) {
+        case Statement::Kind::kBlock:
+            this->writeBlock(s.as<Block>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kExpression:
+            this->writeExpression(*s.as<ExpressionStatement>().expression(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+            this->write(";");
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kReturn:
+            this->writeReturnStatement(s.as<ReturnStatement>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kVarDeclaration:
+            this->writeVarDeclaration(s.as<VarDeclaration>(), false);
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kIf:
+            this->writeIfStatement(s.as<IfStatement>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kFor:
+            this->writeForStatement(s.as<ForStatement>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kDo:
+            this->writeDoStatement(s.as<DoStatement>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kSwitch:
+            this->writeSwitchStatement(s.as<SwitchStatement>());
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kBreak:
+            this->write("break;");
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kContinue:
+            this->write("continue;");
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kDiscard:
+            this->write("discard_fragment();");
+            break;
+        case Statement::Kind::kInlineMarker:
+        case Statement::Kind::kNop:
+            this->write(";");
+            break;
+        default:
+            SkDEBUGFAILF("unsupported statement: %s", s.description().c_str());
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeBlock(const Block& b) {
+    // Write scope markers if this block is a scope, or if the block is empty (since we need to emit
+    // something here to make the code valid).
+    bool isScope = b.isScope() || b.isEmpty();
+    if (isScope) {
+        this->writeLine("{");
+        fIndentation++;
+    }
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Statement>& stmt : b.children()) {
+        if (!stmt->isEmpty()) {
+            this->writeStatement(*stmt);
+            this->finishLine();
+        }
+    }
+    if (isScope) {
+        fIndentation--;
+        this->write("}");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeIfStatement(const IfStatement& stmt) {
+    this->write("if (");
+    this->writeExpression(*stmt.test(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    this->write(") ");
+    this->writeStatement(*stmt.ifTrue());
+    if (stmt.ifFalse()) {
+        this->write(" else ");
+        this->writeStatement(*stmt.ifFalse());
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeForStatement(const ForStatement& f) {
+    // Emit loops of the form 'for(;test;)' as 'while(test)', which is probably how they started
+    if (!f.initializer() && f.test() && !f.next()) {
+        this->write("while (");
+        this->writeExpression(*f.test(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+        this->write(") ");
+        this->writeStatement(*f.statement());
+        return;
+    }
+
+    this->write("for (");
+    if (f.initializer() && !f.initializer()->isEmpty()) {
+        this->writeStatement(*f.initializer());
+    } else {
+        this->write("; ");
+    }
+    if (f.test()) {
+        this->writeExpression(*f.test(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    }
+    this->write("; ");
+    if (f.next()) {
+        this->writeExpression(*f.next(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    }
+    this->write(") ");
+    this->writeStatement(*f.statement());
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeDoStatement(const DoStatement& d) {
+    this->write("do ");
+    this->writeStatement(*d.statement());
+    this->write(" while (");
+    this->writeExpression(*d.test(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    this->write(");");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeSwitchStatement(const SwitchStatement& s) {
+    this->write("switch (");
+    this->writeExpression(*s.value(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    this->writeLine(") {");
+    fIndentation++;
+    for (const std::unique_ptr<Statement>& stmt : s.cases()) {
+        const SwitchCase& c = stmt->as<SwitchCase>();
+        if (c.value()) {
+            this->write("case ");
+            this->writeExpression(*c.value(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+            this->writeLine(":");
+        } else {
+            this->writeLine("default:");
+        }
+        if (!c.statement()->isEmpty()) {
+            fIndentation++;
+            this->writeStatement(*c.statement());
+            this->finishLine();
+            fIndentation--;
+        }
+    }
+    fIndentation--;
+    this->write("}");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeReturnStatementFromMain() {
+    // main functions in Metal return a magic _out parameter that doesn't exist in SkSL.
+    switch (fProgram.fConfig->fKind) {
+        case ProgramKind::kFragment:
+            this->write("return _out;");
+            break;
+        case ProgramKind::kVertex:
+            this->write("return (_out.sk_Position.y = -_out.sk_Position.y, _out);");
+            break;
+        default:
+            SkDEBUGFAIL("unsupported kind of program");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeReturnStatement(const ReturnStatement& r) {
+    if (fCurrentFunction && fCurrentFunction->isMain()) {
+        if (r.expression()) {
+            if (r.expression()->type() == *fContext.fTypes.fHalf4) {
+                this->write("_out.sk_FragColor = ");
+                this->writeExpression(*r.expression(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+                this->writeLine(";");
+            } else {
+                fErrors.error(r.fOffset, "Metal does not support returning '" +
+                                         r.expression()->type().description() + "' from main()");
+            }
+        }
+        this->writeReturnStatementFromMain();
+        return;
+    }
+
+    this->write("return");
+    if (r.expression()) {
+        this->write(" ");
+        this->writeExpression(*r.expression(), Precedence::kTopLevel);
+    }
+    this->write(";");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeHeader() {
+    this->write("#include <metal_stdlib>\n");
+    this->write("#include <simd/simd.h>\n");
+    this->write("using namespace metal;\n");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeUniformStruct() {
+    for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (e->is<GlobalVarDeclaration>()) {
+            const GlobalVarDeclaration& decls = e->as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+            const Variable& var = decls.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>().var();
+            if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kUniform_Flag &&
+                var.type().typeKind() != Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+                int uniformSet = this->getUniformSet(var.modifiers());
+                // Make sure that the program's uniform-set value is consistent throughout.
+                if (-1 == fUniformBuffer) {
+                    this->write("struct Uniforms {\n");
+                    fUniformBuffer = uniformSet;
+                } else if (uniformSet != fUniformBuffer) {
+                    fErrors.error(decls.fOffset, "Metal backend requires all uniforms to have "
+                                                 "the same 'layout(set=...)'");
+                }
+                this->write("    ");
+                this->writeType(var.type());
+                this->write(" ");
+                this->writeName(var.name());
+                this->write(";\n");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if (-1 != fUniformBuffer) {
+        this->write("};\n");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeInputStruct() {
+    this->write("struct Inputs {\n");
+    for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (e->is<GlobalVarDeclaration>()) {
+            const GlobalVarDeclaration& decls = e->as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+            const Variable& var = decls.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>().var();
+            if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kIn_Flag &&
+                -1 == var.modifiers().fLayout.fBuiltin) {
+                this->write("    ");
+                this->writeType(var.type());
+                this->write(" ");
+                this->writeName(var.name());
+                if (-1 != var.modifiers().fLayout.fLocation) {
+                    if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kVertex) {
+                        this->write("  [[attribute(" +
+                                    to_string(var.modifiers().fLayout.fLocation) + ")]]");
+                    } else if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kFragment) {
+                        this->write("  [[user(locn" +
+                                    to_string(var.modifiers().fLayout.fLocation) + ")]]");
+                    }
+                }
+                this->write(";\n");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    this->write("};\n");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeOutputStruct() {
+    this->write("struct Outputs {\n");
+    if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kVertex) {
+        this->write("    float4 sk_Position [[position]];\n");
+    } else if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kFragment) {
+        this->write("    float4 sk_FragColor [[color(0)]];\n");
+    }
+    for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (e->is<GlobalVarDeclaration>()) {
+            const GlobalVarDeclaration& decls = e->as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+            const Variable& var = decls.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>().var();
+            if (var.modifiers().fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag &&
+                -1 == var.modifiers().fLayout.fBuiltin) {
+                this->write("    ");
+                this->writeType(var.type());
+                this->write(" ");
+                this->writeName(var.name());
+
+                int location = var.modifiers().fLayout.fLocation;
+                if (location < 0) {
+                    fErrors.error(var.fOffset,
+                                  "Metal out variables must have 'layout(location=...)'");
+                } else if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kVertex) {
+                    this->write(" [[user(locn" + to_string(location) + ")]]");
+                } else if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kFragment) {
+                    this->write(" [[color(" + to_string(location) + ")");
+                    int colorIndex = var.modifiers().fLayout.fIndex;
+                    if (colorIndex) {
+                        this->write(", index(" + to_string(colorIndex) + ")");
+                    }
+                    this->write("]]");
+                }
+                this->write(";\n");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if (fProgram.fConfig->fKind == ProgramKind::kVertex) {
+        this->write("    float sk_PointSize [[point_size]];\n");
+    }
+    this->write("};\n");
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeInterfaceBlocks() {
+    bool wroteInterfaceBlock = false;
+    for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (e->is<InterfaceBlock>()) {
+            this->writeInterfaceBlock(e->as<InterfaceBlock>());
+            wroteInterfaceBlock = true;
+        }
+    }
+    if (!wroteInterfaceBlock && fProgram.fInputs.fRTHeight) {
+        this->writeLine("struct sksl_synthetic_uniforms {");
+        this->writeLine("    float u_skRTHeight;");
+        this->writeLine("};");
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeStructDefinitions() {
+    for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (e->is<StructDefinition>()) {
+            this->writeStructDefinition(e->as<StructDefinition>());
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::visitGlobalStruct(GlobalStructVisitor* visitor) {
+    // Visit the interface blocks.
+    for (const auto& [interfaceType, interfaceName] : fInterfaceBlockNameMap) {
+        visitor->visitInterfaceBlock(*interfaceType, interfaceName);
+    }
+    for (const ProgramElement* element : fProgram.elements()) {
+        if (!element->is<GlobalVarDeclaration>()) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        const GlobalVarDeclaration& global = element->as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+        const VarDeclaration& decl = global.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>();
+        const Variable& var = decl.var();
+        if ((!var.modifiers().fFlags && -1 == var.modifiers().fLayout.fBuiltin) ||
+            var.type().typeKind() == Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+            if (var.type().typeKind() == Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+                // Samplers are represented as a "texture/sampler" duo in the global struct.
+                visitor->visitTexture(var.type(), var.name());
+                visitor->visitSampler(var.type(), String(var.name()) + SAMPLER_SUFFIX);
+            } else {
+                // Visit a regular variable.
+                visitor->visitVariable(var, decl.value().get());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeGlobalStruct() {
+    class : public GlobalStructVisitor {
+    public:
+        void visitInterfaceBlock(const InterfaceBlock& block, const String& blockName) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->write("    constant ");
+            fCodeGen->write(block.typeName());
+            fCodeGen->write("* ");
+            fCodeGen->writeName(blockName);
+            fCodeGen->write(";\n");
+        }
+        void visitTexture(const Type& type, const String& name) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->write("    ");
+            fCodeGen->writeType(type);
+            fCodeGen->write(" ");
+            fCodeGen->writeName(name);
+            fCodeGen->write(";\n");
+        }
+        void visitSampler(const Type&, const String& name) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->write("    sampler ");
+            fCodeGen->writeName(name);
+            fCodeGen->write(";\n");
+        }
+        void visitVariable(const Variable& var, const Expression* value) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->write("    ");
+            fCodeGen->writeType(var.type());
+            fCodeGen->write(" ");
+            fCodeGen->writeName(var.name());
+            fCodeGen->write(";\n");
+        }
+        void addElement() {
+            if (fFirst) {
+                fCodeGen->write("struct Globals {\n");
+                fFirst = false;
+            }
+        }
+        void finish() {
+            if (!fFirst) {
+                fCodeGen->writeLine("};");
+                fFirst = true;
+            }
+        }
+
+        MetalCodeGenerator* fCodeGen = nullptr;
+        bool fFirst = true;
+    } visitor;
+
+    visitor.fCodeGen = this;
+    this->visitGlobalStruct(&visitor);
+    visitor.finish();
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeGlobalInit() {
+    class : public GlobalStructVisitor {
+    public:
+        void visitInterfaceBlock(const InterfaceBlock& blockType,
+                                 const String& blockName) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->write("&");
+            fCodeGen->writeName(blockName);
+        }
+        void visitTexture(const Type&, const String& name) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->writeName(name);
+        }
+        void visitSampler(const Type&, const String& name) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            fCodeGen->writeName(name);
+        }
+        void visitVariable(const Variable& var, const Expression* value) override {
+            this->addElement();
+            if (value) {
+                fCodeGen->writeVarInitializer(var, *value);
+            } else {
+                fCodeGen->write("{}");
+            }
+        }
+        void addElement() {
+            if (fFirst) {
+                fCodeGen->write("    Globals _globals{");
+                fFirst = false;
+            } else {
+                fCodeGen->write(", ");
+            }
+        }
+        void finish() {
+            if (!fFirst) {
+                fCodeGen->writeLine("};");
+                fCodeGen->writeLine("    (void)_globals;");
+            }
+        }
+        MetalCodeGenerator* fCodeGen = nullptr;
+        bool fFirst = true;
+    } visitor;
+
+    visitor.fCodeGen = this;
+    this->visitGlobalStruct(&visitor);
+    visitor.finish();
+}
+
+void MetalCodeGenerator::writeProgramElement(const ProgramElement& e) {
+    switch (e.kind()) {
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kExtension:
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kGlobalVar: {
+            const GlobalVarDeclaration& global = e.as<GlobalVarDeclaration>();
+            const VarDeclaration& decl = global.declaration()->as<VarDeclaration>();
+            int builtin = decl.var().modifiers().fLayout.fBuiltin;
+            if (-1 == builtin) {
+                // normal var
+                this->writeVarDeclaration(decl, true);
+                this->finishLine();
+            } else if (SK_FRAGCOLOR_BUILTIN == builtin) {
+                // ignore
+            }
+            break;
+        }
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kInterfaceBlock:
+            // handled in writeInterfaceBlocks, do nothing
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kStructDefinition:
+            // Handled in writeStructDefinitions. Do nothing.
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kFunction:
+            this->writeFunction(e.as<FunctionDefinition>());
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kFunctionPrototype:
+            this->writeFunctionPrototype(e.as<FunctionPrototype>());
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kModifiers:
+            this->writeModifiers(e.as<ModifiersDeclaration>().modifiers(),
+                                 /*globalContext=*/true);
+            this->writeLine(";");
+            break;
+        case ProgramElement::Kind::kEnum:
+            break;
+        default:
+            SkDEBUGFAILF("unsupported program element: %s\n", e.description().c_str());
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
+MetalCodeGenerator::Requirements MetalCodeGenerator::requirements(const Expression* e) {
+    if (!e) {
+        return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+    switch (e->kind()) {
+        case Expression::Kind::kFunctionCall: {
+            const FunctionCall& f = e->as<FunctionCall>();
+            Requirements result = this->requirements(f.function());
+            for (const auto& arg : f.arguments()) {
+                result |= this->requirements(arg.get());
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorCompound:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorCompoundCast:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorArray:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorDiagonalMatrix:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorScalarCast:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorSplat:
+        case Expression::Kind::kConstructorStruct: {
+            const AnyConstructor& c = e->asAnyConstructor();
+            Requirements result = kNo_Requirements;
+            for (const auto& arg : c.argumentSpan()) {
+                result |= this->requirements(arg.get());
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kFieldAccess: {
+            const FieldAccess& f = e->as<FieldAccess>();
+            if (FieldAccess::OwnerKind::kAnonymousInterfaceBlock == f.ownerKind()) {
+                return kGlobals_Requirement;
+            }
+            return this->requirements(f.base().get());
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kSwizzle:
+            return this->requirements(e->as<Swizzle>().base().get());
+        case Expression::Kind::kBinary: {
+            const BinaryExpression& bin = e->as<BinaryExpression>();
+            return this->requirements(bin.left().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(bin.right().get());
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kIndex: {
+            const IndexExpression& idx = e->as<IndexExpression>();
+            return this->requirements(idx.base().get()) | this->requirements(idx.index().get());
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kPrefix:
+            return this->requirements(e->as<PrefixExpression>().operand().get());
+        case Expression::Kind::kPostfix:
+            return this->requirements(e->as<PostfixExpression>().operand().get());
+        case Expression::Kind::kTernary: {
+            const TernaryExpression& t = e->as<TernaryExpression>();
+            return this->requirements(t.test().get()) | this->requirements(t.ifTrue().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(t.ifFalse().get());
+        }
+        case Expression::Kind::kVariableReference: {
+            const VariableReference& v = e->as<VariableReference>();
+            const Modifiers& modifiers = v.variable()->modifiers();
+            Requirements result = kNo_Requirements;
+            if (modifiers.fLayout.fBuiltin == SK_FRAGCOORD_BUILTIN) {
+                result = kGlobals_Requirement | kFragCoord_Requirement;
+            } else if (Variable::Storage::kGlobal == v.variable()->storage()) {
+                if (modifiers.fFlags & Modifiers::kIn_Flag) {
+                    result = kInputs_Requirement;
+                } else if (modifiers.fFlags & Modifiers::kOut_Flag) {
+                    result = kOutputs_Requirement;
+                } else if (modifiers.fFlags & Modifiers::kUniform_Flag &&
+                           v.variable()->type().typeKind() != Type::TypeKind::kSampler) {
+                    result = kUniforms_Requirement;
+                } else {
+                    result = kGlobals_Requirement;
+                }
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        default:
+            return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+}
+
+MetalCodeGenerator::Requirements MetalCodeGenerator::requirements(const Statement* s) {
+    if (!s) {
+        return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+    switch (s->kind()) {
+        case Statement::Kind::kBlock: {
+            Requirements result = kNo_Requirements;
+            for (const std::unique_ptr<Statement>& child : s->as<Block>().children()) {
+                result |= this->requirements(child.get());
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kVarDeclaration: {
+            const VarDeclaration& var = s->as<VarDeclaration>();
+            return this->requirements(var.value().get());
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kExpression:
+            return this->requirements(s->as<ExpressionStatement>().expression().get());
+        case Statement::Kind::kReturn: {
+            const ReturnStatement& r = s->as<ReturnStatement>();
+            return this->requirements(r.expression().get());
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kIf: {
+            const IfStatement& i = s->as<IfStatement>();
+            return this->requirements(i.test().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(i.ifTrue().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(i.ifFalse().get());
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kFor: {
+            const ForStatement& f = s->as<ForStatement>();
+            return this->requirements(f.initializer().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(f.test().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(f.next().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(f.statement().get());
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kDo: {
+            const DoStatement& d = s->as<DoStatement>();
+            return this->requirements(d.test().get()) |
+                   this->requirements(d.statement().get());
+        }
+        case Statement::Kind::kSwitch: {
+            const SwitchStatement& sw = s->as<SwitchStatement>();
+            Requirements result = this->requirements(sw.value().get());
+            for (const std::unique_ptr<Statement>& sc : sw.cases()) {
+                result |= this->requirements(sc->as<SwitchCase>().statement().get());
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+        default:
+            return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+}
+
+MetalCodeGenerator::Requirements MetalCodeGenerator::requirements(const FunctionDeclaration& f) {
+    if (f.isBuiltin()) {
+        return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+    auto found = fRequirements.find(&f);
+    if (found == fRequirements.end()) {
+        fRequirements[&f] = kNo_Requirements;
+        for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+            if (e->is<FunctionDefinition>()) {
+                const FunctionDefinition& def = e->as<FunctionDefinition>();
+                if (&def.declaration() == &f) {
+                    Requirements reqs = this->requirements(def.body().get());
+                    fRequirements[&f] = reqs;
+                    return reqs;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // We never found a definition for this declared function, but it's legal to prototype a
+        // function without ever giving a definition, as long as you don't call it.
+        return kNo_Requirements;
+    }
+    return found->second;
+}
+
+bool MetalCodeGenerator::generateCode() {
+    StringStream header;
+    {
+        AutoOutputStream outputToHeader(this, &header, &fIndentation);
+        this->writeHeader();
+        this->writeStructDefinitions();
+        this->writeUniformStruct();
+        this->writeInputStruct();
+        this->writeOutputStruct();
+        this->writeInterfaceBlocks();
+        this->writeGlobalStruct();
+    }
+    StringStream body;
+    {
+        AutoOutputStream outputToBody(this, &body, &fIndentation);
+        for (const ProgramElement* e : fProgram.elements()) {
+            this->writeProgramElement(*e);
+        }
+    }
+    write_stringstream(header, *fOut);
+    write_stringstream(fExtraFunctions, *fOut);
+    write_stringstream(body, *fOut);
+    return 0 == fErrors.errorCount();
+}
+
+}  // namespace SkSL