Doc/library/functions.rst

.. XXX document all delegations to __special__ methods
.. _built-in-funcs:

Built-in Functions
==================

The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that
are always available.  They are listed here in alphabetical order.

===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================
..                   ..                 Built-in Functions  ..                  ..
===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================
:func:`abs`          :func:`delattr`    :func:`hash`        |func-memoryview|_  |func-set|_
:func:`all`          |func-dict|_       :func:`help`        :func:`min`         :func:`setattr`
:func:`any`          :func:`dir`        :func:`hex`         :func:`next`        :func:`slice`
:func:`ascii`        :func:`divmod`     :func:`id`          :func:`object`      :func:`sorted`
:func:`bin`          :func:`enumerate`  :func:`input`       :func:`oct`         :func:`staticmethod`
:func:`bool`         :func:`eval`       :func:`int`         :func:`open`        |func-str|_
:func:`breakpoint`   :func:`exec`       :func:`isinstance`  :func:`ord`         :func:`sum`
|func-bytearray|_    :func:`filter`     :func:`issubclass`  :func:`pow`         :func:`super`
|func-bytes|_        :func:`float`      :func:`iter`        :func:`print`       |func-tuple|_
:func:`callable`     :func:`format`     :func:`len`         :func:`property`    :func:`type`
:func:`chr`          |func-frozenset|_  |func-list|_        |func-range|_       :func:`vars`
:func:`classmethod`  :func:`getattr`    :func:`locals`      :func:`repr`        :func:`zip`
:func:`compile`      :func:`globals`    :func:`map`         :func:`reversed`    :func:`__import__`
:func:`complex`      :func:`hasattr`    :func:`max`         :func:`round`
===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================

.. using :func:`dict` would create a link to another page, so local targets are
   used, with replacement texts to make the output in the table consistent

.. |func-dict| replace:: ``dict()``
.. |func-frozenset| replace:: ``frozenset()``
.. |func-memoryview| replace:: ``memoryview()``
.. |func-set| replace:: ``set()``
.. |func-list| replace:: ``list()``
.. |func-str| replace:: ``str()``
.. |func-tuple| replace:: ``tuple()``
.. |func-range| replace:: ``range()``
.. |func-bytearray| replace:: ``bytearray()``
.. |func-bytes| replace:: ``bytes()``

.. function:: abs(x)

   Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
   integer or a floating point number.  If the argument is a complex number, its
   magnitude is returned. If *x* defines :meth:`__abs__`,
   ``abs(x)`` returns ``x.__abs__()``.


.. function:: all(iterable)

   Return ``True`` if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the iterable
   is empty).  Equivalent to::

      def all(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if not element:
                  return False
          return True


.. function:: any(iterable)

   Return ``True`` if any element of the *iterable* is true.  If the iterable
   is empty, return ``False``.  Equivalent to::

      def any(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if element:
                  return True
          return False


.. function:: ascii(object)

   As :func:`repr`, return a string containing a printable representation of an
   object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
   :func:`repr` using ``\x``, ``\u`` or ``\U`` escapes.  This generates a string
   similar to that returned by :func:`repr` in Python 2.


.. function:: bin(x)

   Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with "0b". The result
   is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
   has to define an :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. Some
   examples:

      >>> bin(3)
      '0b11'
      >>> bin(-10)
      '-0b1010'

   If prefix "0b" is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways.

      >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
      ('0b1110', '1110')
      >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
      ('0b1110', '1110')

   See also :func:`format` for more information.


.. class:: bool([x])

   Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of ``True`` or ``False``.  *x* is converted
   using the standard :ref:`truth testing procedure <truth>`.  If *x* is false
   or omitted, this returns ``False``; otherwise it returns ``True``.  The
   :class:`bool` class is a subclass of :class:`int` (see :ref:`typesnumeric`).
   It cannot be subclassed further.  Its only instances are ``False`` and
   ``True`` (see :ref:`bltin-boolean-values`).

   .. index:: pair: Boolean; type


.. function:: breakpoint(*args, **kws)

   This function drops you into the debugger at the call site.  Specifically,
   it calls :func:`sys.breakpointhook`, passing ``args`` and ``kws`` straight
   through.  By default, ``sys.breakpointhook()`` calls
   :func:`pdb.set_trace()` expecting no arguments.  In this case, it is
   purely a convenience function so you don't have to explicitly import
   :mod:`pdb` or type as much code to enter the debugger.  However,
   :func:`sys.breakpointhook` can be set to some other function and
   :func:`breakpoint` will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into
   the debugger of choice.

   .. versionadded:: 3.7

.. _func-bytearray:
.. class:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
   :noindex:

   Return a new array of bytes.  The :class:`bytearray` class is a mutable
   sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  It has most of the usual
   methods of mutable sequences, described in :ref:`typesseq-mutable`, as well
   as most methods that the :class:`bytes` type has, see :ref:`bytes-methods`.

   The optional *source* parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
   different ways:

   * If it is a *string*, you must also give the *encoding* (and optionally,
     *errors*) parameters; :func:`bytearray` then converts the string to
     bytes using :meth:`str.encode`.

   * If it is an *integer*, the array will have that size and will be
     initialized with null bytes.

   * If it is an object conforming to the *buffer* interface, a read-only buffer
     of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.

   * If it is an *iterable*, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
     ``0 <= x < 256``, which are used as the initial contents of the array.

   Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.

   See also :ref:`binaryseq` and :ref:`typebytearray`.


.. _func-bytes:
.. class:: bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
   :noindex:

   Return a new "bytes" object, which is an immutable sequence of integers in
   the range ``0 <= x < 256``.  :class:`bytes` is an immutable version of
   :class:`bytearray` -- it has the same non-mutating methods and the same
   indexing and slicing behavior.

   Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for :func:`bytearray`.

   Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see :ref:`strings`.

   See also :ref:`binaryseq`, :ref:`typebytes`, and :ref:`bytes-methods`.


.. function:: callable(object)

   Return :const:`True` if the *object* argument appears callable,
   :const:`False` if not.  If this returns true, it is still possible that a
   call fails, but if it is false, calling *object* will never succeed.
   Note that classes are callable (calling a class returns a new instance);
   instances are callable if their class has a :meth:`__call__` method.

   .. versionadded:: 3.2
      This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back
      in Python 3.2.


.. function:: chr(i)

   Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the
   integer *i*.  For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``, while
   ``chr(8364)`` returns the string ``'€'``. This is the inverse of :func:`ord`.

   The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in
   base 16).  :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range.


.. decorator:: classmethod

   Transform a method into a class method.

   A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
   instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
   idiom::

      class C:
          @classmethod
          def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@classmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the description
   of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
   as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
   method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
   implied first argument.

   Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
   see :func:`staticmethod` in this section.

   For more information on class methods, consult the documentation on the standard
   type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.


.. function:: compile(source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)

   Compile the *source* into a code or AST object.  Code objects can be executed
   by :func:`exec` or :func:`eval`.  *source* can either be a normal string, a
   byte string, or an AST object.  Refer to the :mod:`ast` module documentation
   for information on how to work with AST objects.

   The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code was read;
   pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a file (``'<string>'`` is
   commonly used).

   The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
   ``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of statements, ``'eval'`` if it
   consists of a single expression, or ``'single'`` if it consists of a single
   interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
   evaluate to something other than ``None`` will be printed).

   The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which :ref:`future
   statements <future>` affect the compilation of *source*.  If neither
   is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
   statements that are in effect in the code that is calling :func:`compile`.  If the
   *flags* argument is given and *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the
   future statements specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to
   those that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer then
   the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect around the call
   to compile are ignored.

   Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
   specify multiple statements.  The bitfield required to specify a given feature
   can be found as the :attr:`~__future__._Feature.compiler_flag` attribute on
   the :class:`~__future__._Feature` instance in the :mod:`__future__` module.

   The argument *optimize* specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the
   default value of ``-1`` selects the optimization level of the interpreter as
   given by :option:`-O` options.  Explicit levels are ``0`` (no optimization;
   ``__debug__`` is true), ``1`` (asserts are removed, ``__debug__`` is false)
   or ``2`` (docstrings are removed too).

   This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
   and :exc:`ValueError` if the source contains null bytes.

   If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
   :func:`ast.parse`.

   .. note::

      When compiling a string with multi-line code in ``'single'`` or
      ``'eval'`` mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
      character.  This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
      statements in the :mod:`code` module.

   .. warning::

      It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
      sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST
      object due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
      Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines.  Also input in ``'exec'`` mode
      does not have to end in a newline anymore.  Added the *optimize* parameter.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when null bytes were encountered
      in *source*.


.. class:: complex([real[, imag]])

   Return a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*1j or convert a string
   or number to a complex number.  If the first parameter is a string, it will
   be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a
   second parameter.  The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument
   may be any numeric type (including complex).  If *imag* is omitted, it
   defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like
   :class:`int` and :class:`float`.  If both arguments are omitted, returns
   ``0j``.

   .. note::

      When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
      around the central ``+`` or ``-`` operator.  For example,
      ``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')`` raises
      :exc:`ValueError`.

   The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.


.. function:: delattr(object, name)

   This is a relative of :func:`setattr`.  The arguments are an object and a
   string.  The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes.  The
   function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
   example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.


.. _func-dict:
.. class:: dict(**kwarg)
           dict(mapping, **kwarg)
           dict(iterable, **kwarg)
   :noindex:

   Create a new dictionary.  The :class:`dict` object is the dictionary class.
   See :class:`dict` and :ref:`typesmapping` for documentation about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
   :class:`tuple` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections` module.


.. function:: dir([object])

   Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope.  With an
   argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.

   If the object has a method named :meth:`__dir__`, this method will be called and
   must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
   :func:`__getattr__` or :func:`__getattribute__` function to customize the way
   :func:`dir` reports their attributes.

   If the object does not provide :meth:`__dir__`, the function tries its best to
   gather information from the object's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute, if defined, and
   from its type object.  The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
   be inaccurate when the object has a custom :func:`__getattr__`.

   The default :func:`dir` mechanism behaves differently with different types of
   objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
   information:

   * If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module's
     attributes.

   * If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
     attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.

   * Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the names of its
     class's attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class's base
     classes.

   The resulting list is sorted alphabetically.  For example:

      >>> import struct
      >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  # doctest: +SKIP
      ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
      >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module # doctest: +SKIP
      ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
       '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
       '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
       'unpack', 'unpack_from']
      >>> class Shape:
      ...     def __dir__(self):
      ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
      >>> s = Shape()
      >>> dir(s)
      ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

   .. note::

      Because :func:`dir` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
      interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more
      than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names,
      and its detailed behavior may change across releases.  For example,
      metaclass attributes are not in the result list when the argument is a
      class.


.. function:: divmod(a, b)

   Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
   consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division.  With
   mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
   integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
   numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a /
   b)`` but may be 1 less than that.  In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very
   close to *a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0
   <= abs(a % b) < abs(b)``.


.. function:: enumerate(iterable, start=0)

   Return an enumerate object. *iterable* must be a sequence, an
   :term:`iterator`, or some other object which supports iteration.
   The :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method of the iterator returned by
   :func:`enumerate` returns a tuple containing a count (from *start* which
   defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over *iterable*.

      >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
      >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
      [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
      >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
      [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

   Equivalent to::

      def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
          n = start
          for elem in sequence:
              yield n, elem
              n += 1


.. function:: eval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)

   The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals.  If provided,
   *globals* must be a dictionary.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping
   object.

   The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
   (technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
   dictionaries as global and local namespace.  If the *globals* dictionary is
   present and lacks '__builtins__', the current globals are copied into *globals*
   before *expression* is parsed.  This means that *expression* normally has full
   access to the standard :mod:`builtins` module and restricted environments are
   propagated.  If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals*
   dictionary.  If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
   environment where :func:`eval` is called.  The return value is the result of
   the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.  Example:

      >>> x = 1
      >>> eval('x+1')
      2

   This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
   those created by :func:`compile`).  In this case pass a code object instead
   of a string.  If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
   *mode* argument, :func:`eval`\'s return value will be ``None``.

   Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the :func:`exec`
   function.  The :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` functions
   returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
   useful to pass around for use by :func:`eval` or :func:`exec`.

   See :func:`ast.literal_eval` for a function that can safely evaluate strings
   with expressions containing only literals.

.. index:: builtin: exec

.. function:: exec(object[, globals[, locals]])

   This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. *object* must be
   either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the string is parsed as
   a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
   occurs). [#]_ If it is a code object, it is simply executed.  In all cases,
   the code that's executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the
   section "File input" in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the
   :keyword:`return` and :keyword:`yield` statements may not be used outside of
   function definitions even within the context of code passed to the
   :func:`exec` function. The return value is ``None``.

   In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the
   current scope.  If only *globals* is provided, it must be a dictionary, which
   will be used for both the global and the local variables.  If *globals* and
   *locals* are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
   respectively.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping object.  Remember
   that at module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec
   gets two separate objects as *globals* and *locals*, the code will be
   executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.

   If the *globals* dictionary does not contain a value for the key
   ``__builtins__``, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module
   :mod:`builtins` is inserted under that key.  That way you can control what
   builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
   ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals* before passing it to :func:`exec`.

   .. note::

      The built-in functions :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` return the current
      global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
      for use as the second and third argument to :func:`exec`.

   .. note::

      The default *locals* act as described for function :func:`locals` below:
      modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should not be attempted.
      Pass an explicit *locals* dictionary if you need to see effects of the
      code on *locals* after function :func:`exec` returns.


.. function:: filter(function, iterable)

   Construct an iterator from those elements of *iterable* for which *function*
   returns true.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which
   supports iteration, or an iterator.  If *function* is ``None``, the identity
   function is assumed, that is, all elements of *iterable* that are false are
   removed.

   Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to the generator
   expression ``(item for item in iterable if function(item))`` if function is
   not ``None`` and ``(item for item in iterable if item)`` if function is
   ``None``.

   See :func:`itertools.filterfalse` for the complementary function that returns
   elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns false.


.. class:: float([x])

   .. index::
      single: NaN
      single: Infinity

   Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string *x*.

   If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally
   preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace.  The optional
   sign may be ``'+'`` or ``'-'``; a ``'+'`` sign has no effect on the value
   produced.  The argument may also be a string representing a NaN
   (not-a-number), or a positive or negative infinity.  More precisely, the
   input must conform to the following grammar after leading and trailing
   whitespace characters are removed:

   .. productionlist::
      sign: "+" | "-"
      infinity: "Infinity" | "inf"
      nan: "nan"
      numeric_value: `floatnumber` | `infinity` | `nan`
      numeric_string: [`sign`] `numeric_value`

   Here ``floatnumber`` is the form of a Python floating-point literal,
   described in :ref:`floating`.  Case is not significant, so, for example,
   "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY" and "iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for
   positive infinity.

   Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a
   floating point number with the same value (within Python's floating point
   precision) is returned.  If the argument is outside the range of a Python
   float, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised.

   For a general Python object ``x``, ``float(x)`` delegates to
   ``x.__float__()``.

   If no argument is given, ``0.0`` is returned.

   Examples::

      >>> float('+1.23')
      1.23
      >>> float('   -12345\n')
      -12345.0
      >>> float('1e-003')
      0.001
      >>> float('+1E6')
      1000000.0
      >>> float('-Infinity')
      -inf

   The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.


.. index::
   single: __format__
   single: string; format() (built-in function)

.. function:: format(value[, format_spec])

   Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
   *format_spec*.  The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the type
   of the *value* argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
   is used by most built-in types: :ref:`formatspec`.

   The default *format_spec* is an empty string which usually gives the same
   effect as calling :func:`str(value) <str>`.

   A call to ``format(value, format_spec)`` is translated to
   ``type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)`` which bypasses the instance
   dictionary when searching for the value's :meth:`__format__` method.  A
   :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised if the method search reaches
   :mod:`object` and the *format_spec* is non-empty, or if either the
   *format_spec* or the return value are not strings.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
      ``object().__format__(format_spec)`` raises :exc:`TypeError`
      if *format_spec* is not an empty string.


.. _func-frozenset:
.. class:: frozenset([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Return a new :class:`frozenset` object, optionally with elements taken from
   *iterable*.  ``frozenset`` is a built-in class.  See :class:`frozenset` and
   :ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in :class:`set`, :class:`list`,
   :class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
   module.


.. function:: getattr(object, name[, default])

   Return the value of the named attribute of *object*.  *name* must be a string.
   If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
   value of that attribute.  For example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to
   ``x.foobar``.  If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
   provided, otherwise :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.


.. function:: globals()

   Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
   the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
   module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).


.. function:: hasattr(object, name)

   The arguments are an object and a string.  The result is ``True`` if the
   string is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This
   is implemented by calling ``getattr(object, name)`` and seeing whether it
   raises an :exc:`AttributeError` or not.)


.. function:: hash(object)

   Return the hash value of the object (if it has one).  Hash values are
   integers.  They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a
   dictionary lookup.  Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash
   value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).

   .. note::

      For objects with custom :meth:`__hash__` methods, note that :func:`hash`
      truncates the return value based on the bit width of the host machine.
      See :meth:`__hash__` for details.

.. function:: help([object])

   Invoke the built-in help system.  (This function is intended for interactive
   use.)  If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
   interpreter console.  If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
   as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
   topic, and a help page is printed on the console.  If the argument is any other
   kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.

   This function is added to the built-in namespace by the :mod:`site` module.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
      Changes to :mod:`pydoc` and :mod:`inspect` mean that the reported
      signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent.


.. function:: hex(x)

   Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with
   "0x". If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
   :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. Some examples:

      >>> hex(255)
      '0xff'
      >>> hex(-42)
      '-0x2a'

   If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal
   string with prefix or not, you can use either of the following ways:

     >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
     >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
     >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

   See also :func:`format` for more information.

   See also :func:`int` for converting a hexadecimal string to an
   integer using a base of 16.

   .. note::

      To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
      :meth:`float.hex` method.


.. function:: id(object)

   Return the "identity" of an object.  This is an integer which
   is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
   Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same :func:`id`
   value.

   .. impl-detail:: This is the address of the object in memory.


.. function:: input([prompt])

   If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without
   a trailing newline.  The function then reads a line from input, converts it
   to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.  When EOF is
   read, :exc:`EOFError` is raised.  Example::

      >>> s = input('--> ')  # doctest: +SKIP
      --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
      >>> s  # doctest: +SKIP
      "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

   If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it
   to provide elaborate line editing and history features.


.. class:: int(x=0)
           int(x, base=10)

   Return an integer object constructed from a number or string *x*, or return
   ``0`` if no arguments are given.  If *x* defines :meth:`__int__`,
   ``int(x)`` returns ``x.__int__()``.  If *x* defines :meth:`__trunc__`,
   it returns ``x.__trunc__()``.
   For floating point numbers, this truncates towards zero.

   If *x* is not a number or if *base* is given, then *x* must be a string,
   :class:`bytes`, or :class:`bytearray` instance representing an :ref:`integer
   literal <integers>` in radix *base*.  Optionally, the literal can be
   preceded by ``+`` or ``-`` (with no space in between) and surrounded by
   whitespace.  A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with ``a``
   to ``z`` (or ``A`` to ``Z``) having
   values 10 to 35.  The default *base* is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2--36.
   Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with ``0b``/``0B``,
   ``0o``/``0O``, or ``0x``/``0X``, as with integer literals in code.  Base 0
   means to interpret exactly as a code literal, so that the actual base is 2,
   8, 10, or 16, and so that ``int('010', 0)`` is not legal, while
   ``int('010')`` is, as well as ``int('010', 8)``.

   The integer type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
      If *base* is not an instance of :class:`int` and the *base* object has a
      :meth:`base.__index__ <object.__index__>` method, that method is called
      to obtain an integer for the base.  Previous versions used
      :meth:`base.__int__ <object.__int__>` instead of :meth:`base.__index__
      <object.__index__>`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.


.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)

   Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo*
   argument, or of a (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual <abstract base
   class>`) subclass thereof.  If *object* is not
   an object of the given type, the function always returns false.
   If *classinfo* is a tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such
   tuples), return true if *object* is an instance of any of the types.
   If *classinfo* is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples,
   a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.


.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)

   Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual
   <abstract base class>`) of *classinfo*.  A
   class is considered a subclass of itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class
   objects, in which case every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other
   case, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.


.. function:: iter(object[, sentinel])

   Return an :term:`iterator` object.  The first argument is interpreted very
   differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a
   second argument, *object* must be a collection object which supports the
   iteration protocol (the :meth:`__iter__` method), or it must support the
   sequence protocol (the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer arguments
   starting at ``0``).  If it does not support either of those protocols,
   :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the second argument, *sentinel*, is given,
   then *object* must be a callable object.  The iterator created in this case
   will call *object* with no arguments for each call to its
   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method; if the value returned is equal to
   *sentinel*, :exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will
   be returned.

   See also :ref:`typeiter`.

   One useful application of the second form of :func:`iter` is to read lines of
   a file until a certain line is reached.  The following example reads a file
   until the :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline` method returns an empty string::

      with open('mydata.txt') as fp:
          for line in iter(fp.readline, ''):
              process_line(line)


.. function:: len(s)

   Return the length (the number of items) of an object.  The argument may be a
   sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
   (such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).


.. _func-list:
.. class:: list([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Rather than being a function, :class:`list` is actually a mutable
   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-list` and :ref:`typesseq`.


.. function:: locals()

   Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
   Free variables are returned by :func:`locals` when it is called in function
   blocks, but not in class blocks.

   .. note::
      The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
      affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.

.. function:: map(function, iterable, ...)

   Return an iterator that applies *function* to every item of *iterable*,
   yielding the results.  If additional *iterable* arguments are passed,
   *function* must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all
   iterables in parallel.  With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the
   shortest iterable is exhausted.  For cases where the function inputs are
   already arranged into argument tuples, see :func:`itertools.starmap`\.


.. function:: max(iterable, *[, key, default])
              max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])

   Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
   arguments.

   If one positional argument is provided, it should be an :term:`iterable`.
   The largest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
   arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is
   returned.

   There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The *key* argument specifies
   a one-argument ordering function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`. The
   *default* argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
   empty. If the iterable is empty and *default* is not provided, a
   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.

   If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one
   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
   such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]`` and
   ``heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)``.

   .. versionadded:: 3.4
      The *default* keyword-only argument.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.8
      The *key* can be ``None``.


.. _func-memoryview:
.. function:: memoryview(obj)
   :noindex:

   Return a "memory view" object created from the given argument.  See
   :ref:`typememoryview` for more information.


.. function:: min(iterable, *[, key, default])
              min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])

   Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
   arguments.

   If one positional argument is provided, it should be an :term:`iterable`.
   The smallest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
   arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is
   returned.

   There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The *key* argument specifies
   a one-argument ordering function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`. The
   *default* argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
   empty. If the iterable is empty and *default* is not provided, a
   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.

   If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one
   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
   such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]`` and ``heapq.nsmallest(1,
   iterable, key=keyfunc)``.

   .. versionadded:: 3.4
      The *default* keyword-only argument.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.8
      The *key* can be ``None``.


.. function:: next(iterator[, default])

   Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its
   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.  If *default* is given, it is returned
   if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise :exc:`StopIteration` is raised.


.. class:: object()

   Return a new featureless object.  :class:`object` is a base for all classes.
   It has the methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  This
   function does not accept any arguments.

   .. note::

      :class:`object` does *not* have a :attr:`~object.__dict__`, so you can't
      assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the :class:`object` class.


.. function:: oct(x)

  Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with "0o".  The result
  is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
  has to define an :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. For
  example:

      >>> oct(8)
      '0o10'
      >>> oct(-56)
      '-0o70'

  If you want to convert an integer number to octal string either with prefix
  "0o" or not, you can use either of the following ways.

      >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
      ('0o12', '12')
      >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
      ('0o12', '12')
      >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
      ('0o12', '12')

  See also :func:`format` for more information.

   .. index::
      single: file object; open() built-in function

.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

   Open *file* and return a corresponding :term:`file object`.  If the file
   cannot be opened, an :exc:`OSError` is raised.

   *file* is a :term:`path-like object` giving the pathname (absolute or
   relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or an
   integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped.  (If a file descriptor is
   given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed, unless *closefd*
   is set to ``False``.)

   *mode* is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is
   opened.  It defaults to ``'r'`` which means open for reading in text mode.
   Other common values are ``'w'`` for writing (truncating the file if it
   already exists), ``'x'`` for exclusive creation and ``'a'`` for appending
   (which on *some* Unix systems, means that *all* writes append to the end of
   the file regardless of the current seek position).  In text mode, if
   *encoding* is not specified the encoding used is platform dependent:
   ``locale.getpreferredencoding(False)`` is called to get the current locale
   encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave
   *encoding* unspecified.)  The available modes are:

   .. _filemodes:

   .. index::
      pair: file; modes

   ========= ===============================================================
   Character Meaning
   ========= ===============================================================
   ``'r'``   open for reading (default)
   ``'w'``   open for writing, truncating the file first
   ``'x'``   open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists
   ``'a'``   open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists
   ``'b'``   binary mode
   ``'t'``   text mode (default)
   ``'+'``   open a disk file for updating (reading and writing)
   ``'U'``   :term:`universal newlines` mode (deprecated)
   ========= ===============================================================

   The default mode is ``'r'`` (open for reading text, synonym of ``'rt'``).
   For binary read-write access, the mode ``'w+b'`` opens and truncates the file
   to 0 bytes.  ``'r+b'`` opens the file without truncation.

   As mentioned in the :ref:`io-overview`, Python distinguishes between binary
   and text I/O.  Files opened in binary mode (including ``'b'`` in the *mode*
   argument) return contents as :class:`bytes` objects without any decoding.  In
   text mode (the default, or when ``'t'`` is included in the *mode* argument),
   the contents of the file are returned as :class:`str`, the bytes having been
   first decoded using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified
   *encoding* if given.

   .. note::

      Python doesn't depend on the underlying operating system's notion of text
      files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and is therefore
      platform-independent.

   *buffering* is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy.  Pass 0
   to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line
   buffering (only usable in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size
   in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer.  When no *buffering* argument is
   given, the default buffering policy works as follows:

   * Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is
     chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the underlying device's "block
     size" and falling back on :attr:`io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.  On many systems,
     the buffer will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.

   * "Interactive" text files (files for which :meth:`~io.IOBase.isatty`
     returns ``True``) use line buffering.  Other text files use the policy
     described above for binary files.

   *encoding* is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file.
   This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding is platform
   dependent (whatever :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding` returns), but any
   :term:`text encoding` supported by Python
   can be used.  See the :mod:`codecs` module for
   the list of supported encodings.

   *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
   errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary mode.
   A variety of standard error handlers are available
   (listed under :ref:`error-handlers`), though any
   error handling name that has been registered with
   :func:`codecs.register_error` is also valid.  The standard names
   include:

   * ``'strict'`` to raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception if there is
     an encoding error.  The default value of ``None`` has the same
     effect.

   * ``'ignore'`` ignores errors.  Note that ignoring encoding errors
     can lead to data loss.

   * ``'replace'`` causes a replacement marker (such as ``'?'``) to be inserted
     where there is malformed data.

   * ``'surrogateescape'`` will represent any incorrect bytes as code
     points in the Unicode Private Use Area ranging from U+DC80 to
     U+DCFF.  These private code points will then be turned back into
     the same bytes when the ``surrogateescape`` error handler is used
     when writing data.  This is useful for processing files in an
     unknown encoding.

   * ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` is only supported when writing to a file.
     Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced with the
     appropriate XML character reference ``&#nnn;``.

   * ``'backslashreplace'`` replaces malformed data by Python's backslashed
     escape sequences.

   * ``'namereplace'`` (also only supported when writing)
     replaces unsupported characters with ``\N{...}`` escape sequences.

   .. index::
      single: universal newlines; open() built-in function

   *newline* controls how :term:`universal newlines` mode works (it only
   applies to text mode).  It can be ``None``, ``''``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, and
   ``'\r\n'``.  It works as follows:

   * When reading input from the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, universal
     newlines mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end in ``'\n'``,
     ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``, and these are translated into ``'\n'`` before
     being returned to the caller.  If it is ``''``, universal newlines mode is
     enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If it
     has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the
     given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.

   * When writing output to the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, any ``'\n'``
     characters written are translated to the system default line separator,
     :data:`os.linesep`.  If *newline* is ``''`` or ``'\n'``, no translation
     takes place.  If *newline* is any of the other legal values, any ``'\n'``
     characters written are translated to the given string.

   If *closefd* is ``False`` and a file descriptor rather than a filename was
   given, the underlying file descriptor will be kept open when the file is
   closed.  If a filename is given *closefd* must be ``True`` (the default)
   otherwise an error will be raised.

   A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying
   file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with
   (*file*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing
   :mod:`os.open` as *opener* results in functionality similar to passing
   ``None``).

   The newly created file is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.

   The following example uses the :ref:`dir_fd <dir_fd>` parameter of the
   :func:`os.open` function to open a file relative to a given directory::

      >>> import os
      >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
      >>> def opener(path, flags):
      ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
      ...
      >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
      ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
      ...
      >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

   The type of :term:`file object` returned by the :func:`open` function
   depends on the mode.  When :func:`open` is used to open a file in a text
   mode (``'w'``, ``'r'``, ``'wt'``, ``'rt'``, etc.), it returns a subclass of
   :class:`io.TextIOBase` (specifically :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`).  When used
   to open a file in a binary mode with buffering, the returned class is a
   subclass of :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`.  The exact class varies: in read
   binary mode, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedReader`; in write binary and
   append binary modes, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedWriter`, and in
   read/write mode, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedRandom`.  When buffering is
   disabled, the raw stream, a subclass of :class:`io.RawIOBase`,
   :class:`io.FileIO`, is returned.

   .. index::
      single: line-buffered I/O
      single: unbuffered I/O
      single: buffer size, I/O
      single: I/O control; buffering
      single: binary mode
      single: text mode
      module: sys

   See also the file handling modules, such as, :mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`io`
   (where :func:`open` is declared), :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`,
   and :mod:`shutil`.

   .. versionchanged::
      3.3

         * The *opener* parameter was added.
         * The ``'x'`` mode was added.
         * :exc:`IOError` used to be raised, it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
         * :exc:`FileExistsError` is now raised if the file opened in exclusive
           creation mode (``'x'``) already exists.

   .. versionchanged::
      3.4

         * The file is now non-inheritable.

   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 4.0

      The ``'U'`` mode.

   .. versionchanged::
      3.5

         * If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
           exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
           :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
         * The ``'namereplace'`` error handler was added.

   .. versionchanged::
      3.6

         * Support added to accept objects implementing :class:`os.PathLike`.
         * On Windows, opening a console buffer may return a subclass of
           :class:`io.RawIOBase` other than :class:`io.FileIO`.

.. function:: ord(c)

   Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer
   representing the Unicode code point of that character.  For example,
   ``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97`` and ``ord('€')`` (Euro sign)
   returns ``8364``.  This is the inverse of :func:`chr`.


.. function:: pow(x, y[, z])

   Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the power *y*,
   modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) % z``). The two-argument
   form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using the power operator: ``x**y``.

   The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types, the
   coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For :class:`int`
   operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
   unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
   converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example, ``10**2``
   returns ``100``, but ``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``.  If the second argument is
   negative, the third argument must be omitted.  If *z* is present, *x* and *y*
   must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative.


.. function:: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)

   Print *objects* to the text stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed
   by *end*.  *sep*, *end*, *file* and *flush*, if present, must be given as keyword
   arguments.

   All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like :func:`str` does and
   written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*.  Both *sep*
   and *end* must be strings; they can also be ``None``, which means to use the
   default values.  If no *objects* are given, :func:`print` will just write
   *end*.

   The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it
   is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used.  Since printed
   arguments are converted to text strings, :func:`print` cannot be used with
   binary mode file objects.  For these, use ``file.write(...)`` instead.

   Whether output is buffered is usually determined by *file*, but if the
   *flush* keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
      Added the *flush* keyword argument.


.. class:: property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

   Return a property attribute.

   *fget* is a function for getting an attribute value.  *fset* is a function
   for setting an attribute value. *fdel* is a function for deleting an attribute
   value.  And *doc* creates a docstring for the attribute.

   A typical use is to define a managed attribute ``x``::

      class C:
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          def getx(self):
              return self._x

          def setx(self, value):
              self._x = value

          def delx(self):
              del self._x

          x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

   If *c* is an instance of *C*, ``c.x`` will invoke the getter,
   ``c.x = value`` will invoke the setter and ``del c.x`` the deleter.

   If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
   property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists).  This makes it possible to
   create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::

      class Parrot:
          def __init__(self):
              self._voltage = 100000

          @property
          def voltage(self):
              """Get the current voltage."""
              return self._voltage

   The ``@property`` decorator turns the :meth:`voltage` method into a "getter"
   for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets the docstring for
   *voltage* to "Get the current voltage."

   A property object has :attr:`~property.getter`, :attr:`~property.setter`,
   and :attr:`~property.deleter` methods usable as decorators that create a
   copy of the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
   decorated function.  This is best explained with an example::

      class C:
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          @property
          def x(self):
              """I'm the 'x' property."""
              return self._x

          @x.setter
          def x(self, value):
              self._x = value

          @x.deleter
          def x(self):
              del self._x

   This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure to give the
   additional functions the same name as the original property (``x`` in this
   case.)

   The returned property object also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``, and
   ``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
      The docstrings of property objects are now writeable.


.. _func-range:
.. function:: range(stop)
              range(start, stop[, step])
   :noindex:

   Rather than being a function, :class:`range` is actually an immutable
   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-range` and :ref:`typesseq`.


.. function:: repr(object)

   Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.  For many
   types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
   object with the same value when passed to :func:`eval`, otherwise the
   representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
   of the type of the object together with additional information often
   including the name and address of the object.  A class can control what this
   function returns for its instances by defining a :meth:`__repr__` method.


.. function:: reversed(seq)

   Return a reverse :term:`iterator`.  *seq* must be an object which has
   a :meth:`__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
   :meth:`__len__` method and the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer
   arguments starting at ``0``).


.. function:: round(number[, ndigits])

   Return *number* rounded to *ndigits* precision after the decimal
   point.  If *ndigits* is omitted or is ``None``, it returns the
   nearest integer to its input.

   For the built-in types supporting :func:`round`, values are rounded to the
   closest multiple of 10 to the power minus *ndigits*; if two multiples are
   equally close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example,
   both ``round(0.5)`` and ``round(-0.5)`` are ``0``, and ``round(1.5)`` is
   ``2``).  Any integer value is valid for *ndigits* (positive, zero, or
   negative).  The return value is an integer if *ndigits* is omitted or
   ``None``.
   Otherwise the return value has the same type as *number*.

   For a general Python object ``number``, ``round`` delegates to
   ``number.__round__``.

   .. note::

      The behavior of :func:`round` for floats can be surprising: for example,
      ``round(2.675, 2)`` gives ``2.67`` instead of the expected ``2.68``.
      This is not a bug: it's a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
      can't be represented exactly as a float.  See :ref:`tut-fp-issues` for
      more information.


.. _func-set:
.. class:: set([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Return a new :class:`set` object, optionally with elements taken from
   *iterable*.  ``set`` is a built-in class.  See :class:`set` and
   :ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.

   For other containers see the built-in :class:`frozenset`, :class:`list`,
   :class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
   module.


.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)

   This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`.  The arguments are an object, a
   string and an arbitrary value.  The string may name an existing attribute or a
   new attribute.  The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
   object allows it.  For example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to
   ``x.foobar = 123``.


.. class:: slice(stop)
           slice(start, stop[, step])

   .. index:: single: Numerical Python

   Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
   ``range(start, stop, step)``.  The *start* and *step* arguments default to
   ``None``.  Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`~slice.start`,
   :attr:`~slice.stop` and :attr:`~slice.step` which merely return the argument
   values (or their default).  They have no other explicit functionality;
   however they are used by Numerical Python and other third party extensions.
   Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is used.  For
   example: ``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``.  See
   :func:`itertools.islice` for an alternate version that returns an iterator.


.. function:: sorted(iterable, *, key=None, reverse=False)

   Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.

   Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.

   *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
   key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``.  The default value is ``None``
   (compare the elements directly).

   *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the list elements are
   sorted as if each comparison were reversed.

   Use :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` to convert an old-style *cmp* function to a
   *key* function.

   The built-in :func:`sorted` function is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is
   stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that
   compare equal --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for
   example, sort by department, then by salary grade).

   For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see :ref:`sortinghowto`.

.. decorator:: staticmethod

   Transform a method into a static method.

   A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
   method, use this idiom::

      class C:
          @staticmethod
          def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the
   description of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
   as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for its class.

   Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also see
   :func:`classmethod` for a variant that is useful for creating alternate class
   constructors.

   Like all decorators, it is also possible to call ``staticmethod`` as
   a regular function and do something with its result.  This is needed
   in some cases where you need a reference to a function from a class
   body and you want to avoid the automatic transformation to instance
   method.  For these cases, use this idiom::

      class C:
          builtin_open = staticmethod(open)

   For more information on static methods, consult the documentation on the
   standard type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.


.. index::
   single: string; str() (built-in function)

.. _func-str:
.. class:: str(object='')
           str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
   :noindex:

   Return a :class:`str` version of *object*.  See :func:`str` for details.

   ``str`` is the built-in string :term:`class`.  For general information
   about strings, see :ref:`textseq`.


.. function:: sum(iterable[, start])

   Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and returns the
   total.  *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s items are normally numbers,
   and the start value is not allowed to be a string.

   For some use cases, there are good alternatives to :func:`sum`.
   The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
   ``''.join(sequence)``.  To add floating point values with extended precision,
   see :func:`math.fsum`\.  To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
   :func:`itertools.chain`.

.. function:: super([type[, object-or-type]])

   Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
   class of *type*.  This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
   been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
   :func:`getattr` except that the *type* itself is skipped.

   The :attr:`~class.__mro__` attribute of the *type* lists the method
   resolution search order used by both :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`.  The
   attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
   updated.

   If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound.  If
   the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true.  If
   the second argument is a type, ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true (this
   is useful for classmethods).

   There are two typical use cases for *super*.  In a class hierarchy with
   single inheritance, *super* can be used to refer to parent classes without
   naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable.  This use
   closely parallels the use of *super* in other programming languages.

   The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
   dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to Python and is
   not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
   single inheritance.  This makes it possible to implement "diamond diagrams"
   where multiple base classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates
   that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
   order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
   to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
   sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).

   For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this::

      class C(B):
          def method(self, arg):
              super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                     # super(C, self).method(arg)

   Note that :func:`super` is implemented as part of the binding process for
   explicit dotted attribute lookups such as ``super().__getitem__(name)``.
   It does so by implementing its own :meth:`__getattribute__` method for searching
   classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
   Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
   operators such as ``super()[name]``.

   Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, :func:`super` is not
   limited to use inside methods.  The two argument form specifies the
   arguments exactly and makes the appropriate references.  The zero
   argument form only works inside a class definition, as the compiler fills
   in the necessary details to correctly retrieve the class being defined,
   as well as accessing the current instance for ordinary methods.

   For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
   :func:`super`, see `guide to using super()
   <https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_.


.. _func-tuple:
.. function:: tuple([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Rather than being a function, :class:`tuple` is actually an immutable
   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-tuple` and :ref:`typesseq`.


.. class:: type(object)
           type(name, bases, dict)

   .. index:: object: type

   With one argument, return the type of an *object*.  The return value is a
   type object and generally the same object as returned by
   :attr:`object.__class__ <instance.__class__>`.

   The :func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for testing the type
   of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.


   With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is essentially a
   dynamic form of the :keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is the
   class name and becomes the :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute; the *bases*
   tuple itemizes the base classes and becomes the :attr:`~class.__bases__`
   attribute; and the *dict* dictionary is the namespace containing definitions
   for class body and is copied to a standard dictionary to become the
   :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.  For example, the following two
   statements create identical :class:`type` objects:

      >>> class X:
      ...     a = 1
      ...
      >>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))

   See also :ref:`bltin-type-objects`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
      Subclasses of :class:`type` which don't override ``type.__new__`` may no
      longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.

.. function:: vars([object])

   Return the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute for a module, class, instance,
   or any other object with a :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.

   Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable :attr:`~object.__dict__`
   attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
   :attr:`~object.__dict__` attributes (for example, classes use a
   :class:`types.MappingProxyType` to prevent direct dictionary updates).

   Without an argument, :func:`vars` acts like :func:`locals`.  Note, the
   locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
   dictionary are ignored.


.. function:: zip(*iterables)

   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables.

   Returns an iterator of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains
   the *i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables.  The
   iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted. With a single
   iterable argument, it returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments,
   it returns an empty iterator.  Equivalent to::

        def zip(*iterables):
            # zip('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax By
            sentinel = object()
            iterators = [iter(it) for it in iterables]
            while iterators:
                result = []
                for it in iterators:
                    elem = next(it, sentinel)
                    if elem is sentinel:
                        return
                    result.append(elem)
                yield tuple(result)

   The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
   makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
   using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.  This repeats the *same* iterator ``n`` times
   so that each output tuple has the result of ``n`` calls to the iterator.
   This has the effect of dividing the input into n-length chunks.

   :func:`zip` should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don't
   care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer iterables.  If those
   values are important, use :func:`itertools.zip_longest` instead.

   :func:`zip` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to unzip a
   list::

      >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
      >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
      >>> zipped = zip(x, y)
      >>> list(zipped)
      [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
      >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
      >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
      True


.. function:: __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)

   .. index::
      statement: import
      module: imp

   .. note::

      This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
      programming, unlike :func:`importlib.import_module`.

   This function is invoked by the :keyword:`import` statement.  It can be
   replaced (by importing the :mod:`builtins` module and assigning to
   ``builtins.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the
   :keyword:`import` statement, but doing so is **strongly** discouraged as it
   is usually simpler to use import hooks (see :pep:`302`) to attain the same
   goals and does not cause issues with code which assumes the default import
   implementation is in use.  Direct use of :func:`__import__` is also
   discouraged in favor of :func:`importlib.import_module`.

   The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given *globals*
   and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
   The *fromlist* gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
   imported from the module given by *name*.  The standard implementation does
   not use its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to
   determine the package context of the :keyword:`import` statement.

   *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. ``0`` (the
   default) means only perform absolute imports.  Positive values for
   *level* indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
   directory of the module calling :func:`__import__` (see :pep:`328` for the
   details).

   When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the
   top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the
   module named by *name*.  However, when a non-empty *fromlist* argument is
   given, the module named by *name* is returned.

   For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in bytecode resembling the
   following code::

      spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

   The statement ``import spam.ham`` results in this call::

      spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

   Note how :func:`__import__` returns the toplevel module here because this is
   the object that is bound to a name by the :keyword:`import` statement.

   On the other hand, the statement ``from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
   saus`` results in ::

      _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
      eggs = _temp.eggs
      saus = _temp.sausage

   Here, the ``spam.ham`` module is returned from :func:`__import__`.  From this
   object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
   names.

   If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
   use :func:`importlib.import_module`.

   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
      Negative values for *level* are no longer supported (which also changes
      the default value to 0).


.. rubric:: Footnotes

.. [#] Note that the parser only accepts the Unix-style end of line convention.
   If you are reading the code from a file, make sure to use newline conversion
   mode to convert Windows or Mac-style newlines.