Doc/library/functions.rst

.. XXX document all delegations to __special__ methods
.. _built-in-funcs:

Built-in Functions
==================

The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that
are always available.  They are listed here in alphabetical order.


.. function:: abs(x)

   Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
   integer or a floating point number.  If the argument is a complex number, its
   magnitude is returned.


.. function:: all(iterable)

   Return True if all elements of the *iterable* are true. Equivalent to::

      def all(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if not element:
                  return False
          return True


.. function:: any(iterable)

   Return True if any element of the *iterable* is true. Equivalent to::

      def any(iterable):
          for element in iterable:
              if element:
                  return True
          return False


.. function:: ascii(object)

   As :func:`repr`, return a string containing a printable representation of an
   object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
   :func:`repr` using ``\x``, ``\u`` or ``\U`` escapes.  This generates a string
   similar to that returned by :func:`repr` in Python 2.


.. function:: bin(x)

   Convert an integer number to a binary string. The result is a valid Python
   expression.  If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
   :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer.


.. function:: bool([x])

   Convert a value to a Boolean, using the standard truth testing procedure.  If
   *x* is false or omitted, this returns :const:`False`; otherwise it returns
   :const:`True`. :class:`bool` is also a class, which is a subclass of
   :class:`int`. Class :class:`bool` cannot be subclassed further.  Its only
   instances are :const:`False` and :const:`True`.

   .. index:: pair: Boolean; type


.. function:: bytearray([arg[, encoding[, errors]]])

   Return a new array of bytes.  The :class:`bytearray` type is a mutable
   sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  It has most of the usual
   methods of mutable sequences, described in :ref:`typesseq-mutable`, as well
   as most methods that the :class:`str` type has, see :ref:`bytes-methods`.

   The optional *arg* parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
   different ways:

   * If it is a *string*, you must also give the *encoding* (and optionally,
     *errors*) parameters; :func:`bytearray` then converts the string to
     bytes using :meth:`str.encode`.

   * If it is an *integer*, the array will have that size and will be
     initialized with null bytes.

   * If it is an object conforming to the *buffer* interface, a read-only buffer
     of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.

   * If it is an *iterable*, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
     ``0 <= x < 256``, which are used as the initial contents of the array.

   Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.


.. function:: bytes([arg[, encoding[, errors]]])

   Return a new "bytes" object, which is an immutable sequence of integers in
   the range ``0 <= x < 256``.  :class:`bytes` is an immutable version of
   :class:`bytearray` -- it has the same non-mutating methods and the same
   indexing and slicing behavior.
   
   Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for :func:`buffer`.

   Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see :ref:`strings`.


.. function:: chr(i)

   Return the string of one character whose Unicode codepoint is the integer
   *i*.  For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``. This is the
   inverse of :func:`ord`.  The valid range for the argument depends how Python
   was configured -- it may be either UCS2 [0..0xFFFF] or UCS4 [0..0x10FFFF].
   :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range.


.. function:: classmethod(function)

   Return a class method for *function*.

   A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
   instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
   idiom::

      class C:
          @classmethod
          def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@classmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the description
   of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
   as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
   method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
   implied first argument.

   Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
   see :func:`staticmethod` in this section.

   For more information on class methods, consult the documentation on the standard
   type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.


.. function:: cmp(x, y)

   Compare the two objects *x* and *y* and return an integer according to the
   outcome.  The return value is negative if ``x < y``, zero if ``x == y`` and
   strictly positive if ``x > y``.


.. function:: compile(source, filename, mode[, flags[, dont_inherit]])

   Compile the *source* into a code or AST object.  Code objects can be executed
   by an :keyword:`exec` statement or evaluated by a call to :func:`eval`.
   *source* can either be a string or an AST object.  Refer to the :mod:`ast`
   module documentation for information on how to work with AST objects.

   The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code was read;
   pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a file (``'<string>'`` is
   commonly used).

   The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
   ``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of statements, ``'eval'`` if it
   consists of a single expression, or ``'single'`` if it consists of a single
   interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
   evaluate to something else than ``None`` will be printed).

   The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which future
   statements (see :pep:`236`) affect the compilation of *source*.  If neither
   is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
   statements that are in effect in the code that is calling compile.  If the
   *flags* argument is given and *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the
   future statements specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to
   those that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer then
   the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect around the call
   to compile are ignored.

   Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
   specify multiple statements.  The bitfield required to specify a given feature
   can be found as the :attr:`compiler_flag` attribute on the :class:`_Feature`
   instance in the :mod:`__future__` module.

   This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
   and :exc:`TypeError` if the source contains null bytes.

   .. note::

      When compiling a string with multi-line statements, line endings must be
      represented by a single newline character (``'\n'``), and the input must
      be terminated by at least one newline character.  If line endings are
      represented by ``'\r\n'``, use :meth:`str.replace` to change them into
      ``'\n'``.


.. function:: complex([real[, imag]])

   Create a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*j or convert a string or
   number to a complex number.  If the first parameter is a string, it will be
   interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a second
   parameter.  The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any
   numeric type (including complex). If *imag* is omitted, it defaults to zero and
   the function serves as a numeric conversion function like :func:`int`
   and :func:`float`.  If both arguments are omitted, returns ``0j``.

   The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.


.. function:: delattr(object, name)

   This is a relative of :func:`setattr`.  The arguments are an object and a
   string.  The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes.  The
   function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
   example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.


.. function:: dict([arg])
   :noindex:

   Create a new data dictionary, optionally with items taken from *arg*.
   The dictionary type is described in :ref:`typesmapping`.

   For other containers see the built in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
   :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.


.. function:: dir([object])

   Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope.  With an
   argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.

   If the object has a method named :meth:`__dir__`, this method will be called and
   must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
   :func:`__getattr__` or :func:`__getattribute__` function to customize the way
   :func:`dir` reports their attributes.

   If the object does not provide :meth:`__dir__`, the function tries its best to
   gather information from the object's :attr:`__dict__` attribute, if defined, and
   from its type object.  The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
   be inaccurate when the object has a custom :func:`__getattr__`.

   The default :func:`dir` mechanism behaves differently with different types of
   objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
   information:

   * If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module's
     attributes.

   * If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
     attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.

   * Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the names of its
     class's attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class's base
     classes.

   The resulting list is sorted alphabetically.  For example:

      >>> import struct
      >>> dir()   # doctest: +SKIP
      ['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'struct']
      >>> dir(struct)   # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
      ['Struct', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__',
       '__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
       'unpack', 'unpack_from']
      >>> class Foo(object):
      ...     def __dir__(self):
      ...         return ["kan", "ga", "roo"]
      ...
      >>> f = Foo()
      >>> dir(f)
      ['ga', 'kan', 'roo']

   .. note::

      Because :func:`dir` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
      interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it
      tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its
      detailed behavior may change across releases.  For example, metaclass attributes
      are not in the result list when the argument is a class.


.. function:: divmod(a, b)

   Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
   consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division.  With mixed
   operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For integers, 
   the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
   numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a / b)``
   but may be 1 less than that.  In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very close to
   *a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0 <= abs(a % b)
   < abs(b)``.


.. function:: enumerate(iterable[, start=0])

   Return an enumerate object. *iterable* must be a sequence, an
   :term:`iterator`, or some other object which supports iteration.  The
   :meth:`__next__` method of the iterator returned by :func:`enumerate` returns a
   tuple containing a count (from *start* which defaults to 0) and the
   corresponding value obtained from iterating over *iterable*.
   :func:`enumerate` is useful for obtaining an indexed series: ``(0, seq[0])``,
   ``(1, seq[1])``, ``(2, seq[2])``, .... For example:

      >>> for i, season in enumerate(['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter')]:
      ...     print(i, season)
      0 Spring
      1 Summer
      2 Fall
      3 Winter


.. function:: eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])

   The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals.  If provided,
   *globals* must be a dictionary.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping
   object.

   The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
   (technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
   dictionaries as global and local namespace.  If the *globals* dictionary is
   present and lacks '__builtins__', the current globals are copied into *globals*
   before *expression* is parsed.  This means that *expression* normally has full
   access to the standard :mod:`builtins` module and restricted environments are
   propagated.  If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals*
   dictionary.  If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
   environment where :func:`eval` is called.  The return value is the result of
   the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.  Example:

      >>> x = 1
      >>> eval('x+1')
      2

   This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
   those created by :func:`compile`).  In this case pass a code object instead
   of a string.  If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
   *kind* argument, :func:`eval`\'s return value will be ``None``.

   Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the :func:`exec`
   function.  The :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` functions
   returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
   useful to pass around for use by :func:`eval` or :func:`exec`.


.. function:: exec(object[, globals[, locals]])

   This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. *object* must be
   either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the string is parsed as
   a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
   occurs).  If it is a code object, it is simply executed.  In all cases, the
   code that's executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section
   "File input" in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the :keyword:`return`
   and :keyword:`yield` statements may not be used outside of function
   definitions even within the context of code passed to the :func:`exec`
   function. The return value is ``None``.

   In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the
   current scope.  If only *globals* is provided, it must be a dictionary, which
   will be used for both the global and the local variables.  If *globals* and
   *locals* are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
   respectively.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping object.

   If the *globals* dictionary does not contain a value for the key
   ``__builtins__``, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module
   :mod:`builtins` is inserted under that key.  That way you can control what
   builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
   ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals* before passing it to :func:`exec`.

   .. note::

      The built-in functions :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` return the current
      global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
      for use as the second and third argument to :func:`exec`.

   .. warning::

      The default *locals* act as described for function :func:`locals` below:
      modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should not be attempted.
      Pass an explicit *locals* dictionary if you need to see effects of the
      code on *locals* after function :func:`exec` returns.


.. function:: filter(function, iterable)

   Construct an iterator from those elements of *iterable* for which *function*
   returns true.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which
   supports iteration, or an iterator.  If *function* is ``None``, the identity
   function is assumed, that is, all elements of *iterable* that are false are
   removed.

   Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to the generator
   expression ``(item for item in iterable if function(item))`` if function is
   not ``None`` and ``(item for item in iterable if item)`` if function is
   ``None``.


.. function:: float([x])

   Convert a string or a number to floating point.  If the argument is a string,
   it must contain a possibly signed decimal or floating point number, possibly
   embedded in whitespace. The argument may also be ``'[+|-]nan'`` or
   ``'[+|-]inf'``.  Otherwise, the argument may be an integer or a floating
   point number, and a floating point number with the same value (within
   Python's floating point precision) is returned.  If no argument is given,
   ``0.0`` is returned.

   .. note::

      .. index::
         single: NaN
         single: Infinity

      When passing in a string, values for NaN and Infinity may be returned,
      depending on the underlying C library.  Float accepts the strings
      ``'nan'``, ``'inf'`` and ``'-inf'`` for NaN and positive or negative
      infinity.  The case and a leading + are ignored as well as a leading - is
      ignored for NaN.  Float always represents NaN and infinity as ``nan``,
      ``inf`` or ``-inf``.

   The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.

.. function:: format(value[, format_spec])

   .. index::
      pair: str; format
      single: __format__
   
   Convert a string or a number to a "formatted" representation, as controlled
   by *format_spec*.  The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the
   type of the *value* argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax
   that is used by most built-in types: :ref:`formatspec`.
   
   .. note::

      ``format(value, format_spec)`` merely calls ``value.__format__(format_spec)``.


.. function:: frozenset([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Return a frozenset object, optionally with elements taken from *iterable*.
   The frozenset type is described in :ref:`types-set`.

   For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and
   :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.


.. function:: getattr(object, name[, default])

   Return the value of the named attributed of *object*.  *name* must be a string.
   If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
   value of that attribute.  For example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to
   ``x.foobar``.  If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
   provided, otherwise :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.


.. function:: globals()

   Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
   the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
   module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).


.. function:: hasattr(object, name)

   The arguments are an object and a string.  The result is ``True`` if the string
   is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This is
   implemented by calling ``getattr(object, name)`` and seeing whether it raises an
   exception or not.)


.. function:: hash(object)

   Return the hash value of the object (if it has one).  Hash values are integers.
   They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup.
   Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of
   different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).


.. function:: help([object])

   Invoke the built-in help system.  (This function is intended for interactive
   use.)  If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
   interpreter console.  If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
   as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
   topic, and a help page is printed on the console.  If the argument is any other
   kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.

   This function is added to the built-in namespace by the :mod:`site` module.


.. function:: hex(x)

   Convert an integer number to a hexadecimal string. The result is a valid Python
   expression.  If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
   :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer.


.. function:: id(object)

   Return the "identity" of an object.  This is an integer which
   is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
   Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same :func:`id` value.
   (Implementation note: this is the address of the object.)


.. function:: input([prompt])

   If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without
   a trailing newline.  The function then reads a line from input, converts it
   to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.  When EOF is
   read, :exc:`EOFError` is raised.  Example::

      >>> s = input('--> ')
      --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
      >>> s
      "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

   If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it
   to provide elaborate line editing and history features.


.. function:: int([number | string[, radix]])

   Convert a number or string to an integer.  If no arguments are given, return
   ``0``.  If a number is given, return ``number.__int__()``.  Conversion of
   floating point numbers to integers truncates towards zero.  A string must be
   a base-radix integer literal optionally preceded by '+' or '-' (with no space
   in between) and optionally surrounded by whitespace.  A base-n literal
   consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with 'a' to 'z' (or 'A' to 'Z') having
   values 10 to 35.  The default radix is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2-36.
   Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with ``0b``/``0B``,
   ``0o``/``0O``, or ``0x``/``0X``, as with integer literals in code.  Radix 0
   means to interpret exactly as a code literal, so that the actual radix is 2,
   8, 10, or 16, and so that ``int('010', 0)`` is not legal, while
   ``int('010')`` is, as well as ``int('010', 8)``.

   The integer type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.


.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)

   Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo*
   argument, or of a (direct or indirect) subclass thereof.  If *object* is not
   an object of the given type, the function always returns false.  If
   *classinfo* is not a class (type object), it may be a tuple of type objects,
   or may recursively contain other such tuples (other sequence types are not
   accepted).  If *classinfo* is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples,
   a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.


.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)

   Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct or indirect) of *classinfo*.  A
   class is considered a subclass of itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class
   objects, in which case every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other
   case, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.


.. function:: iter(o[, sentinel])

   Return an :term:`iterator` object.  The first argument is interpreted very differently
   depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, *o*
   must be a collection object which supports the iteration protocol (the
   :meth:`__iter__` method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the
   :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer arguments starting at ``0``).  If it
   does not support either of those protocols, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the
   second argument, *sentinel*, is given, then *o* must be a callable object.  The
   iterator created in this case will call *o* with no arguments for each call to
   its :meth:`__next__` method; if the value returned is equal to *sentinel*,
   :exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.


.. function:: len(s)

   Return the length (the number of items) of an object.  The argument may be a
   sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping (dictionary).


.. function:: list([iterable])

   Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
   items.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container that supports
   iteration, or an iterator object.  If *iterable* is already a list, a copy is
   made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``.  For instance, ``list('abc')``
   returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``.  If
   no argument is given, returns a new empty list, ``[]``.

   :class:`list` is a mutable sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. 

.. function:: locals()

   Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.

   .. warning::

      The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not affect
      the values of local variables used by the interpreter.

   Free variables are returned by :func:`locals` when it is called in a function block.
   Modifications of free variables may not affect the values used by the
   interpreter.  Free variables are not returned in class blocks.


.. function:: map(function, iterable, ...)

   Return an iterator that applies *function* to every item of *iterable*,
   yielding the results.  If additional *iterable* arguments are passed,
   *function* must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all
   iterables in parallel.  With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the
   shortest iterable is exhausted.


.. function:: max(iterable[, args...], *[, key])

   With a single argument *iterable*, return the largest item of a non-empty
   iterable (such as a string, tuple or list).  With more than one argument, return
   the largest of the arguments.

   The optional keyword-only *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering
   function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`.


.. function:: memoryview(obj)
   :noindex:

   Return a "memory view" object created from the given argument.  See
   :ref:`typememoryview` for more information.


.. function:: min(iterable[, args...], *[, key])

   With a single argument *iterable*, return the smallest item of a non-empty
   iterable (such as a string, tuple or list).  With more than one argument, return
   the smallest of the arguments.

   The optional keyword-only *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering
   function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`.


.. function:: next(iterator[, default])

   Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its :meth:`__next__`
   method.  If *default* is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted,
   otherwise :exc:`StopIteration` is raised.


.. function:: object()

   Return a new featureless object.  :class:`object` is a base for all classes.
   It has the methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  This
   function does not accept any arguments.

   .. note::

      :class:`object` does *not* have a :attr:`__dict__`, so you can't assign
      arbitrary attributes to an instance of the :class:`object` class.


.. function:: oct(x)

   Convert an integer number to an octal string.  The result is a valid Python
   expression.  If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
   :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer.


.. function:: open(file[, mode='r'[, buffering=None[, encoding=None[, errors=None[, newline=None[, closefd=True]]]]]])

   Open a file.  If the file cannot be opened, :exc:`IOError` is raised.
   
   *file* is either a string or bytes object giving the name (and the path if
   the file isn't in the current working directory) of the file to be opened or
   an integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped.  (If a file descriptor
   is given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed, unless
   *closefd* is set to ``False``.)

   *mode* is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is
   opened.  It defaults to ``'r'`` which means open for reading in text mode.
   Other common values are ``'w'`` for writing (truncating the file if it
   already exists), and ``'a'`` for appending (which on *some* Unix systems,
   means that *all* writes append to the end of the file regardless of the
   current seek position).  In text mode, if *encoding* is not specified the
   encoding used is platform dependent. (For reading and writing raw bytes use
   binary mode and leave *encoding* unspecified.)  The available modes are:

   ========= ===============================================================
   Character Meaning
   --------- ---------------------------------------------------------------
   ``'r'``   open for reading (default)
   ``'w'``   open for writing, truncating the file first
   ``'a'``   open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists
   ``'b'``   binary mode
   ``'t'``   text mode (default)
   ``'+'``   open a disk file for updating (reading and writing)
   ``'U'``   universal newline mode (for backwards compatibility; unneeded
             for new code)
   ========= ===============================================================

   The default mode is ``'rt'`` (open for reading text).  For binary random
   access, the mode ``'w+b'`` opens and truncates the file to 0 bytes, while
   ``'r+b'`` opens the file without truncation.

   Python distinguishes between files opened in binary and text modes, even
   when the underlying operating system doesn't.  Files opened in binary
   mode (appending ``'b'`` to the *mode* argument) return contents as
   ``bytes`` objects without any decoding.  In text mode (the default, or when
   ``'t'`` is appended to the *mode* argument) the contents of
   the file are returned as strings, the bytes having been first decoded
   using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified *encoding*
   if given.

   *buffering* is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy.  By
   default full buffering is on. Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in
   binary mode), 1 to set line buffering, and an integer > 1 for full buffering.
    
   *encoding* is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file.
   This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding is platform
   dependent, but any encoding supported by Python can be passed.  See the
   :mod:`codecs` module for the list of supported encodings.

   *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding errors are to be
   handled---this argument should not be used in binary mode. Pass ``'strict'``
   to raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception if there is an encoding error (the
   default of ``None`` has the same effect), or pass ``'ignore'`` to ignore
   errors. (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to data loss.) See the
   documentation for :func:`codecs.register` for a list of the permitted
   encoding error strings.

   *newline* controls how universal newlines works (it only applies to text
   mode).  It can be ``None``, ``''``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, and ``'\r\n'``.  It
   works as follows:

   * On input, if *newline* is ``None``, universal newlines mode is enabled.
     Lines in the input can end in ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``, and these
     are translated into ``'\n'`` before being returned to the caller.  If it is
     ``''``, universal newline mode is enabled, but line endings are returned to
     the caller untranslated.  If it has any of the other legal values, input
     lines are only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is
     returned to the caller untranslated.

   * On output, if *newline* is ``None``, any ``'\n'`` characters written are
     translated to the system default line separator, :data:`os.linesep`.  If
     *newline* is ``''``, no translation takes place.  If *newline* is any of
     the other legal values, any ``'\n'`` characters written are translated to
     the given string.

   If *closefd* is ``False``, the underlying file descriptor will be kept open
   when the file is closed.  This does not work when a file name is given and
   must be ``True`` in that case.

   .. index::
      single: line-buffered I/O
      single: unbuffered I/O
      single: buffer size, I/O
      single: I/O control; buffering
      single: binary mode
      single: text mode
      module: sys

   See also the file handling modules, such as, :mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`io`
   (where :func:`open()` is declared), :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`,
   :mod:`tempfile`, and :mod:`shutil`.


.. XXX works for bytes too, but should it?
.. function:: ord(c)

   Given a string of length one, return an integer representing the Unicode code
   point of the character.  For example, ``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97``
   and ``ord('\u2020')`` returns ``8224``.  This is the inverse of :func:`chr`.

   If the argument length is not one, a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.  (If
   Python was built with UCS2 Unicode, then the character's code point must be
   in the range [0..65535] inclusive; otherwise the string length is two!)


.. function:: pow(x, y[, z])

   Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the power *y*,
   modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) % z``). The two-argument
   form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using the power operator: ``x**y``.

   The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types, the
   coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For :class:`int`
   operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
   unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
   converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example, ``10**2``
   returns ``100``, but ``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``.  If the second argument is
   negative, the third argument must be omitted.  If *z* is present, *x* and *y*
   must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative.


.. function:: print([object, ...][, sep=' '][, end='\\n'][, file=sys.stdout])

   Print *object*\(s) to the stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed by
   *end*.  *sep*, *end* and *file*, if present, must be given as keyword
   arguments.

   All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like :func:`str` does and
   written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*.  Both *sep*
   and *end* must be strings; they can also be ``None``, which means to use the
   default values.  If no *object* is given, :func:`print` will just write
   *end*.

   The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it
   is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used.


.. function:: property([fget[, fset[, fdel[, doc]]]])

   Return a property attribute.

   *fget* is a function for getting an attribute value, likewise *fset* is a
   function for setting, and *fdel* a function for del'ing, an attribute.  Typical
   use is to define a managed attribute x::

      class C(object):
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          def getx(self):
              return self._x
          def setx(self, value):
              self._x = value
          def delx(self):
              del self._x
          x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

   If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
   property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists).  This makes it possible to
   create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::

      class Parrot(object):
          def __init__(self):
              self._voltage = 100000

          @property
          def voltage(self):
              """Get the current voltage."""
              return self._voltage

   turns the :meth:`voltage` method into a "getter" for a read-only attribute
   with the same name.

   A property object has :attr:`getter`, :attr:`setter`, and :attr:`deleter`
   methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the property with the
   corresponding accessor function set to the decorated function.  This is
   best explained with an example::

      class C(object):
          def __init__(self):
              self._x = None

          @property
          def x(self):
              """I'm the 'x' property."""
              return self._x

          @x.setter
          def x(self, value):
              self._x = value

          @x.deleter
          def x(self):
              del self._x

   This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure to give the
   additional functions the same name as the original property (``x`` in this
   case.)

   The returned property also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``, and
   ``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.


.. XXX does accept objects with __index__ too
.. function:: range([start,] stop[, step])

   This is a versatile function to create iterables yielding arithmetic
   progressions.  It is most often used in :keyword:`for` loops.  The arguments
   must be integers.  If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``.
   If the *start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``.  The full form
   returns an iterable of integers ``[start, start + step, start + 2 * step,
   ...]``.  If *step* is positive, the last element is the largest ``start + i *
   step`` less than *stop*; if *step* is negative, the last element is the
   smallest ``start + i * step`` greater than *stop*.  *step* must not be zero
   (or else :exc:`ValueError` is raised).  Example:

      >>> list(range(10))
      [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
      >>> list(range(1, 11))
      [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
      >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
      [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
      >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
      [0, 3, 6, 9]
      >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
      [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
      >>> list(range(0))
      []
      >>> list(range(1, 0))
      []


.. function:: repr(object)

   Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.  For many
   types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
   object with the same value when passed to :func:`eval`, otherwise the
   representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
   of the type of the object together with additional information often
   including the name and address of the object.  A class can control what this
   function returns for its instances by defining a :meth:`__repr__` method.


.. function:: reversed(seq)

   Return a reverse :term:`iterator`.  *seq* must be an object which has
   a :meth:`__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
   :meth:`__len__` method and the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer
   arguments starting at ``0``).


.. function:: round(x[, n])

   Return the floating point value *x* rounded to *n* digits after the decimal
   point.  If *n* is omitted, it defaults to zero.  Delegates to
   ``x.__round__(n)``.

   For the built-in types supporting :func:`round`, values are rounded to the
   closest multiple of 10 to the power minus *n*; if two multiples are equally
   close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example, both
   ``round(0.5)`` and ``round(-0.5)`` are ``0``, and ``round(1.5)`` is ``2``).
   The return value is an integer if called with one argument, otherwise of the
   same type as *x*.


.. function:: set([iterable])
   :noindex:

   Return a new set, optionally with elements are taken from *iterable*.
   The set type is described in :ref:`types-set`.


.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)

   This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`.  The arguments are an object, a
   string and an arbitrary value.  The string may name an existing attribute or a
   new attribute.  The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
   object allows it.  For example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to
   ``x.foobar = 123``.


.. function:: slice([start,] stop[, step])

   .. index:: single: Numerical Python

   Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
   ``range(start, stop, step)``.  The *start* and *step* arguments default to
   ``None``.  Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`start`,
   :attr:`stop` and :attr:`step` which merely return the argument values (or their
   default).  They have no other explicit functionality; however they are used by
   Numerical Python and other third party extensions.  Slice objects are also
   generated when extended indexing syntax is used.  For example:
   ``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``.


.. function:: sorted(iterable[, key[, reverse]])

   Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.

   Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.

   *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
   key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``.  The default value is ``None``.

   *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the list elements are
   sorted as if each comparison were reversed.


.. function:: staticmethod(function)

   Return a static method for *function*.

   A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
   method, use this idiom::

      class C:
          @staticmethod
          def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...

   The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the
   description of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.

   It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
   as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for its class.

   Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. For a more
   advanced concept, see :func:`classmethod` in this section.

   For more information on static methods, consult the documentation on the
   standard type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.


.. function:: str([object[, encoding[, errors]]])

   Return a string version of an object, using one of the following modes:
   
   If *encoding* and/or *errors* are given, :func:`str` will decode the
   *object* which can either be a byte string or a character buffer using
   the codec for *encoding*. The *encoding* parameter is a string giving
   the name of an encoding; if the encoding is not known, :exc:`LookupError`
   is raised.  Error handling is done according to *errors*; this specifies the
   treatment of characters which are invalid in the input encoding. If
   *errors* is ``'strict'`` (the default), a :exc:`ValueError` is raised on
   errors, while a value of ``'ignore'`` causes errors to be silently ignored,
   and a value of ``'replace'`` causes the official Unicode replacement character,
   U+FFFD, to be used to replace input characters which cannot be decoded.
   See also the :mod:`codecs` module. 

   When only *object* is given, this returns its nicely printable representation.
   For strings, this is the string itself.  The difference with ``repr(object)``
   is that ``str(object)`` does not always attempt to return a string that is
   acceptable to :func:`eval`; its goal is to return a printable string.
   With no arguments, this returns the empty string.

   Objects can specify what ``str(object)`` returns by defining a :meth:`__str__`
   special method.

   For more information on strings see :ref:`typesseq` which describes sequence
   functionality (strings are sequences), and also the string-specific methods
   described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To output formatted strings,
   see the :ref:`string-formatting` section. In addition see the
   :ref:`stringservices` section.


.. function:: sum(iterable[, start])

   Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and returns the
   total.  *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s items are normally numbers,
   and are not allowed to be strings.  The fast, correct way to concatenate a
   sequence of strings is by calling ``''.join(sequence)``.


.. function:: super([type[, object-or-type]])

   Return a *super* object that acts as a proxy to superclasses of *type*.

   If the second argument is omitted the super object returned is unbound.  If
   the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true.  If
   the second argument is a type, ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true.
   Calling :func:`super` without arguments is equivalent to ``super(this_class,
   first_arg)``.

   There are two typical use cases for :func:`super`.  In a class hierarchy with
   single inheritance, :func:`super` can be used to refer to parent classes without
   naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable.  This use
   closely parallels the use of "super" in other programming languages.
   
   The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritence in a
   dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to Python and is 
   not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support 
   single inheritance.  This makes in possible to implement "diamond diagrams"
   where multiple base classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates
   that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
   order of parent calls is determined at runtime and because that order adapts
   to changes in the class hierarchy).

   For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this::

      class C(B):
          def method(self, arg):
              super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as: super(C, self).method(arg)

   Note that :func:`super` is implemented as part of the binding process for
   explicit dotted attribute lookups such as ``super().__getitem__(name)``.
   It does so by implementing its own :meth:`__getattribute__` method for searching
   parent classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
   Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
   operators such as ``super()[name]``.

   Also note that :func:`super` is not limited to use inside methods.  The
   two argument specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate
   references.  The zero argument form automatically searches the stack frame
   for the class (``__class__``) and the first argument.


.. function:: tuple([iterable])

   Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
   items.  *iterable* may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an
   iterator object. If *iterable* is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged.
   For instance, ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and ``tuple([1, 2,
   3])`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``.  If no argument is given, returns a new empty
   tuple, ``()``.

   :class:`tuple` is an immutable sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. 


.. function:: type(object)

   .. index:: object: type

   Return the type of an *object*.  The return value is a type object and
   generally the same object as returned by ``object.__class__``.

   The :func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for testing the type
   of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.

   With three arguments, :func:`type` functions as a constructor as detailed
   below.


.. function:: type(name, bases, dict)
   :noindex:

   Return a new type object.  This is essentially a dynamic form of the
   :keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is the class name and becomes the
   :attr:`__name__` attribute; the *bases* tuple itemizes the base classes and
   becomes the :attr:`__bases__` attribute; and the *dict* dictionary is the
   namespace containing definitions for class body and becomes the :attr:`__dict__`
   attribute.  For example, the following two statements create identical
   :class:`type` objects:

      >>> class X(object):
      ...     a = 1
      ...     
      >>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))


.. function:: vars([object])

   Without arguments, return a dictionary corresponding to the current local symbol
   table.  With a module, class or class instance object as argument (or anything
   else that has a :attr:`__dict__` attribute), returns a dictionary corresponding
   to the object's symbol table.  The returned dictionary should not be modified:
   the effects on the corresponding symbol table are undefined. [#]_


.. function:: zip(*iterables)

   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. 

   Returns an iterator of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains
   the *i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables.  The
   iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted. With a single
   iterable argument, it returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments, 
   it returns an empty iterator.  Equivalent to::

      def zip(*iterables):
          # zip('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax By
          iterables = map(iter, iterables)
          while iterables:
              result = [it.next() for it in iterables]
              yield tuple(result)

   The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
   makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
   using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.

   :func:`zip` should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don't
   care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer iterables.  If those
   values are important, use :func:`itertools.zip_longest` instead.

   :func:`zip` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to unzip a
   list::

      >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
      >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
      >>> zipped = zip(x, y)
      >>> list(zipped)
      [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
      >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
      >>> x == x2, y == y2
      True


.. function:: __import__(name[, globals[, locals[, fromlist[, level]]]])

   .. index::
      statement: import
      module: imp

   .. note::

      This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
      programming.

   The function is invoked by the :keyword:`import` statement.  It mainly exists
   so that you can replace it with another function that has a compatible
   interface, in order to change the semantics of the :keyword:`import`
   statement.  See the built-in module :mod:`imp`, which defines some useful
   operations out of which you can build your own :func:`__import__` function.

   For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in the following call:
   ``__import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], -1)``; the statement
   ``from spam.ham import eggs`` results in ``__import__('spam.ham', globals(),
   locals(), ['eggs'], -1)``.  Note that even though ``locals()`` and ``['eggs']``
   are passed in as arguments, the :func:`__import__` function does not set the
   local variable named ``eggs``; this is done by subsequent code that is generated
   for the import statement.  (In fact, the standard implementation does not use
   its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to determine the
   package context of the :keyword:`import` statement.)

   When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the
   top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the
   module named by *name*.  However, when a non-empty *fromlist* argument is
   given, the module named by *name* is returned.  This is done for
   compatibility with the :term:`bytecode` generated for the different kinds of import
   statement; when using ``import spam.ham.eggs``, the top-level package
   :mod:`spam` must be placed in the importing namespace, but when using ``from
   spam.ham import eggs``, the ``spam.ham`` subpackage must be used to find the
   ``eggs`` variable.  As a workaround for this behavior, use :func:`getattr` to
   extract the desired components.  For example, you could define the following
   helper::

      def my_import(name):
          mod = __import__(name)
          components = name.split('.')
          for comp in components[1:]:
              mod = getattr(mod, comp)
          return mod

   *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. The default is
   ``-1`` which indicates both absolute and relative imports will be attempted.
   ``0`` means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for *level* indicate
   the number of parent directories to search relative to the directory of the
   module calling :func:`__import__`.


.. rubric:: Footnotes

.. [#] Specifying a buffer size currently has no effect on systems that don't have
   :cfunc:`setvbuf`.  The interface to specify the buffer size is not done using a
   method that calls :cfunc:`setvbuf`, because that may dump core when called after
   any I/O has been performed, and there's no reliable way to determine whether
   this is the case.

.. [#] In the current implementation, local variable bindings cannot normally be
   affected this way, but variables retrieved from other scopes (such as modules)
   can be.  This may change.